Management an Organizational Development

Describing management is no simple task, and most of the times you’ll find statements like:

“Management is what managers do”

While that’s true, it doesn’t tell us much unfortunately. So in order to understand the concept of
management, you have to understand what managers do. THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT:

Essentially, the role of managers is to guide the organizations toward goal accomplishment. All
organizations exist for certain purposes or goals,and managers are responsible for combining and
using organizational resources to ensure that their organizations achieve their purposes.

The role of the Management is to move an organization towards its purposes or goals by assigning
activities that organization members perform.

If Management ensures that all the activities are designed effectively, the production of each
individual worker will contribute to the attainment of the organizational goals.

Management strives to encourage individual activity that will lead to reaching organizational goals
and to discourage individual activity that will hinder the accomplishment of the organization
objectives.

There is no idea more important than managing the fulfillment of the organizational goals and
objectives. The meaning of the Management is given by its goals and objectives.

All managers, must have a single minded focus on the fulfillment of the organizational goals.

Mintzberg Management Roles

Henry Mintzberg is a well know researcher, and the results of his studies about the work of
managers were published in The Nature of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).
The term management roles refers to specific categories of managerial behaviour, and Mintzberg
concluded that what managers do, can be described by studying ten different and interrelated
roles, grouped around interpersonal relationships, transfer of information, and last, but not least,
decision making. For a more in depth description you should probably check Mintzberg’s work,
but I’ll try to provide a general outline of his conclusions.
Interpersonal Roles
The ones that, like the name suggests, involve people and other ceremonial duties.

- Leader – Responsible for staffing, training, and associated duties.

- Figurehead – The symbolic head of the organization.

- Liaison – Maintains the communication between all contacts and informers that compose
the organizational network.

Informational Roles
Related to collecting, receiving, and disseminating information.

- Monitor – Personally seek and receive information, to be able to understand the

organization.

- Disseminator – Transmits all import information received from outsiders to the members of
the organization.

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- Spokesperson – On the contrary to the above role, here the manager transmits the
organization’s plans, policies and actions to outsiders.

Decisional Roles
Roles that revolve around making choices.

- Entrepreneur – Seeks opportunities. Basically they search for change, respond to it, and
exploit it.

- Negotiator – Represents the organization at major negotiations.

- Resource Allocator – Makes or approves all significant decisions related to the allocation
of resources.

- Disturbance Handler – Responsible for corrective action when the organization faces
disturbances.

It’s worth to mention that Mintzberg also considered that as managers perform the roles
described above, their activities include reflection and action. Reflection (also called thoughtful
thinking) because managers think, ponder and contemplate about their decisions. Action (or
practical doing) because everytime they act, they are doing something, they are applying their
decisions.

Mintzberg’s approach is debatable, but several studies that tested the Management Roles
categories in different types of organizations support the idea that managers do perform similar
roles. What does change, is the emphasis given to each role, that may vary depending on the
organizational level.

Organizational develpoment

People who want to obtain a certain academic degree generally have to attend regular classical lectures at
certain college. Such trend now becomes relative issue because through online university, people can now
achieve certain academic degree without having to attend such regular class. There are a lot of study programs
that have been made available to be joined in through online program. Among those programs are nursing
degrees, educational degrees and organizational development degrees.
Organizational development study program is intended to train people who want to achieve special degree in an
interdisciplinary program that combines social sciences, communicational skills, arts, humanities, and business.
The combination of all of those fields of study is established to provide every study participants with adept
knowledge and skills to accomplish organizational leadership. Since the study program is an interdisciplinary
program, students who want to take part in this program should have accomplished at least bachelor’s degree in
one of study programs that has a relevant relation to this program. Since the establishment of this program is
intended to create competent transformative leaders, all fields of study that are studied in this program are
related to all tasks that have to be undertaken by an organization leader. Such fields of study include the art of
forging alliances, building hope and contagious confidence, inspiring a shared vision, turning details into action,
thinking creatively, and many more skills that will obviously be needed for everyone who is assigned as a leader
of certain organization.

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As leader candidates, students will be confronted with various problems that are usually faced by all leaders.
Such problems may be related to business, humanity, political, or educational affairs. The point of such problem
exposition is to give the students an opportunity to solve such problems as effectively and as efficiently as
possible. By employing the organizational development masters online, they can try to solve them through a
cooperative endeavor with a broad array of students from around the world.

3) Role of OD
The means to build organizational capacities and manage change.

Definition

Organizational development (OD) is a term most commonly used when referring to building capacities of an
organization. The International Federation defines organizational development as:
an ongoing systematic approach of continuous learning to improve the ability and the capacity of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies to make the most effective and efficient use of their available human and financial
resources to achieve the humanitarian purposes of the Movement in a sustainable way.

Managing change

OD is about managing change in a systematic and planned way. The purpose of change for an organization is
to evolve and to increase its positive impact on the lives of vulnerable people. The goal of changing is to
become more effective, viable, autonomous and legitimate. In an organizational change process, it is important
for a National Society to understand its current model, create a vision of a future image and identify the steps
to realise that vision.

National Societies are voluntary organizations (non-profit or member-based societies) that should not be
turned into bureaucracies. They mobilise people and resources to deal with humanitarian needs in society.
They grow in capacity by doing this work, by practising their mandate and by solving problems encountered
along the way. They draw their resources mainly from the communities. A systematic sociological and
economic evaluation of the country provides a National Society with the necessary information to adjust its
capacities to meet changing needs of vulnerable people effectively.

Understanding and managing organizational culture is an important aspect of managing change. Culture is
ultimately linked to values and beliefs. To identify a National Society’s existing culture, the unwritten rules
need to be exposed:

· What behaviour is allowed or not allowed?

· What is rewarded or punished and by whom?

· What is sanctioned or not sanctioned?

· What is praised or not praised?

Based on organizational traditions described in section 2, as well as learning from National Society change
processes from around the world, there are four key points for consideration in organizational development:

a)Focus on making a difference in the lives of vulnerable people

Organizational change should be driven by the needs and capacities of vulnerable people. This requires an
analysis and a (re)design of services and programmes the National Society should be providing as well as the
local organizational delivery structures.

b)People make all the difference

A National Society needs to be transparent and inclusive in its change process, with volunteers, members and
employed staff actively involved in participating in the process at different levels. There needs to be a clear
definition and design for the role of volunteers, members and employed staff in running programmes and
services, including their involvement in governance and management. Supporting and training staff, volunteers
and active members are essential to a successful change process.

c)People’s trust and the organization’s credibility

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In order to obtain resources from its environment and accessing vulnerable populations and ensuring that its
services are relevant and fully utilised, a National Society must have the trust of its community and have
credibility. Trust and credibility are achieved through transparent management practices and provision of
relevant services to communities. A simple way to practise transparency for a National Society is to engage its
key stakeholders and ensure that it continuously builds effective external partnerships.

d)Integrate capacity building measures into coherent change management

There are many entry points for building capacities, such as working on improved programmes and services, or
on improving systems and structures. Capacity building measures in one part of the organization trigger needs
for capacity building in other parts. For example, while working on improving financial management,
weaknesses in governance and management practices are exposed and will need to be addressed.

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 Set- 2
Research Methodology

Q 1.Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of

distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other

prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often
designed for statistical analysis of the responses, In some studies, questionnaire is the sole
research tool utilized but it is more often used in conjunction with other methods of
investigations. In questionnaire technique, great reliance is placed on the respondent’s verbal
report for data on the stimuli or experiences which is exposed as also for data on his behavior.

There are some alternative methods of sending questionnaires to the respondents. They are:

Personal Delivery

Personal delivery of questionnaires may be more valid than low-cost interviewing since
inexperienced personnel probably introduce less error in the course of delivering
questionnaires than while conducting interviews. In the direct interview it is possible to
record more than the verbal responses of the interviewee, which are often superficial. When
human beings communicate directly with each other much more information is
communicated between them. When two people face one another, the dialogue is conducted
on several levels. It goes beyond verbal expression. The nature of words used, facial
expressions and body language all communicate what the other party means.

It has strengths which compensate for the weaknesses of other methods. One advan- tage
is that it focuses the researcher's atten- tion on the behavior of individuals rather than
simply on their verbal interview or test- taking behavior. The advantage of personal delivery
over mailing is that warnings against receiving outside help can be made both orally and in
writing. Further, the person picking up the questionnaire may check with the respondent to
make sure he has answered all the questions himself.

One disadvantage of entirely self-administered questionnaires is that the researcher cannot be

sure the designated respondent is not receiving outside advice. We do not contend that this
method is always more desirable than mailed questionnaires or low-cost interviews.
However, it may prove useful to survey researchers wishing to conduct low-cost surveys in
geographically compact areas.

Attaching Questionnaire to a Product

Before launching a new product, marketing professionals first test it with a selected audience.
A new product survey provides a way for marketers to understand when to start, modify

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existing ideas, how and who to market. Evaluating new products with online questionnaires
provides a cost-effective way to obtain valuable information from the the people who matter
most, the customer. A firm test marketing a product may attach a questionnaire to a product
and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm. A gift or a discount coupon
usually rewards the respondent.

Business can take advantage of knowledge gain from online marketing surveys such as the
new product survey to understand which benefits are most important to customers –Which
features are essential in delivering the product’s promise. Identify customer’s needs, measure
advertising and placements factors.

Advertising the Questionnaires

The promise of media advertising is great. It’s an opportunity for a brand to tell its story
directly to the ultimate consumer. It’s an opportunity to build awareness and project a
powerful brand image. It’s an opportunity to create and build brand equity. It’s an
opportunity to bypass the trade, an opportunity to circumvent competitors. In actual practice,
however, the promise of media advertising is seldom realized. In fact, the opposite is true.
Media advertising is probably the most inefficient, least productive expenditure in the typical
company’s marketing budget.
The questionnaire with the instructions for completion may be advertised on a page of a
magazine or in a section of newspapers. The potential respondent completes it, tears it out
and mails it to the advertiser.

News-Stand Inserts

This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self addressed reply-
paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a newspaper or magazine.

Advantages of Questionnaires
Questionnaires may be a “cost effective way” of obtaining data from a large audience; for
example, from large numbers of population. Questionnaires need to be properly planned in
order to get data of high quality that can be used for analysis. Participants may not like to be
identified for having taken part in research; therefore, questionnaires can be an effective tool
to gather information from respondents, who do not like to be identified. Participants may be
honesty when giving answers if they know that they would not be identified. Most
respondents who take part in questionnaires would know what information is being asked
about them. Questionnaires can be designed to target a certain “audience even if they are
geographically spread.” Depending on the design of questionnaires, the data collected may be
either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data is in numerical form and can be used to
find answers about a particular problem such as: customers’ perceptions about certain
products, feelings about services being offered by “Call Centers”, and so on. Another good
thing about questionnaires is that they “reduce bias.” Mail surveys, being more impersonal,
provide more anonymity than personal interviews. They are totally free from the

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interviewer’s bias, as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the
investigator.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires
There may be problems with questionnaires; for example, respondents may not understand
the questions and therefore, give answers that, they may not have given if they had
understood the question. The researcher may not know whether the questionnaire was
completed by the targeted audience or not; for example, if the research is about “Goal-line
Technology”, the respondent may not be a football fun and therefore, may give an answer
which may not be given by a football fun. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a
country like India where the percentage of literacy is very low.

Q2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and
dispersion?

Measures of central tendency

It is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying the central position
within that set of data. As such, measures of central tendency are sometimes called measures
of central location. They are also classed as summary statistics. The mean (often called the
average) is most likely the measure of central tendency that you are most familiar with, but
there are others, such as, the mean, the median and the mode.
The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency but, under different
conditions, some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others.
You are already familiar with the following measures of central tendency. These statistics
indicate where the data are centered.
Mean ( X ). The mean (average) of a set of scores is the sum of the scores divided by the
number of scores.
Median. The median of a set of scores is the middle score when the numbers are arranged in
size order. If there is an even number of data values, as in x = {15, 7,4,13,11,10} , the median
is the average of the two middle scores:
4, 7 10,11
Median=
10+11
2
=10.5
! 13, 15
The first quartile (Q1) is the median of the values of below the median.
The third quartile (Q3) is the median of the values of above the median.
Examples:
11 15
Q1
! 22 31
Median
! 32 41

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Q3
! 52
22 34 39
Q1
=
34+39
2
=36.5
!"#
56 67
Median
$ 69 72 84
Q3
=
72+84
2
=78
!"#
87
Mode. The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a set. The mode of {2, 3, 1, 2, 4, 3,
5, 6, 2, 5} is 2, since 2 appears more times than any other value in the list. Some data sets
have no mode and others will have multiple modes.

Measures of Dispersion

The range and standard deviation are measures of dispersion since these statistics
describe how spread out the data are:
Range: The range of a set of scores is the difference between the largest and smallest scores.
Standard Deviation: The standard deviation of a set of scores is a statistic that measures
how far apart the individual scores are from the mean. If the data represent an entire
population (for example, the scores of an entire class), the population standard deviation,
denoted! X , is used. Sometimes it is impractical to collect data for the entire population, so a
representative sample would be used to collect information about the entire population. In
these cases, the sample standard deviation, denoted S x , is used.

Calculating Standard Deviation Using the Graphing Calculator:

1. Data is stored in Lists on the calculator. Locate and press the STAT button on the
calculator. Choose EDIT. The calculator will display the first three of six lists (columns) for
entering data. Simply type your data and press ENTER. Use your arrow keys to move
between lists.
Data can also be entered from the home screen using set notation --
{15, 22, 32, 31, 52, 41, 11} � L1 (where � is the STO key)
2. Press the STAT button. Choose CALC at the top. Select 1-Var Stats.
Notice that you are now on the home screen. Specify the list you wish to use by choosing the
2nd button and the list name:
(Note: If you omit the list name, the calculator uses L1 by default.)
Press ENTER and view the calculations. Use the down arrow to view all of the information.
the mean, the sum of the data, the sum of the squares of the data the sample standard
deviation ,the population standard deviation, the sample size (# of pieces of data), the

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smallest data entry, data at the first quartile, data at the median (second quartile), data at the
third quartile, the largest data entry

Mean, Median, and Mode

In many real-life situations, it is helpful to describe data by a single number that is most
representative of the entire collection of numbers. Such a number is called a measure of
central tendency. The most commonly used measures are as follows.
1. The mean, or average, of numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by .
2. The median of numbers is the middle number when the numbers are written in order. If is
even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.
3. The mode of numbers is the number that occurs most frequently. If two numbers tie for
most frequent occurrence, the collection has two modes and is called bimodal.

Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency

Which of the three measures of central tendency is the most representative? The answer is
that it depends on the distribution of the data and the way in which you plan to use the data.

Variance and Standard Deviation

Very different sets of numbers can have the same mean. You will now study two measures
of dispersion, which give you an idea of how much the numbers in a set differ from the mean
of the set. These two measures are called the variance of the set and the standard deviation of
the set.

Objectives of Dispersion:
1. To know the average variation of different values from the average of a series.
2. To know about the composition of a series or the dispersion of the values on either
sides of the central tendency.
3. To know the range of values.
4. To compare the disparity between two or more series expressed in different units in
order to find out the degree of variation.
5. To know whether the Central Tendency truly represent the series or not. If the
dispersion is more the central tendency do not represent the series.
Importance of Dispersion :
1. Conclusion drawn from the central tendency carries no meaning without knowing
variation of various items of the series from the average.
2. Inequalities in the distribution of wealth and income can be measured in dispersion.
3. Dispersion is used to compare and measure concentration of economic power and
monopoly in the country.
Dispersion is used in output control and price control.
Characteristics of a good Measure of Dispersion :
1. It should be simple to understand and easy to calculate.
2. It should be rightly defined.
3. It should be based on the all items of the series.
4. It should not be unduly affected by the extreme items of the series.
5. It should be least affected by the sample fluctuations.
It should be amenable to the further algebraic treatment.

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Q 3. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Explain how the research
design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and
diagnostic studies.

After deciding the basic aspects of research project (i.e. formulating research problem,
objectives of research, data requirement, sample design, etc) and before the commencement
of work of research project, the researcher has to prepare research design. It is a major step in
the research process /procedure. The research work will be conducted (i.e. data collection,
etc) as per the research design prepared.

Research design means to prepare detailed plan and procedures for the conduct of the
research project. A research design is the detailed blueprint used to guide a research study
toward its objectives. The process of designing a research study involves many interrelated
decisions. The most significant decision is the choice of research approach, because it
determines how the information will be obtained. To design something also means to ensure
that the pieces fit together. The achievement of this fit among objective, research approach,
and research tactics is inherently an iterative process in which earlier decisions are constantly
reconsidered in light of subsequent decisions.
In short, research design is a systematic planning, organising and executing a research
project within specified time limit and resource allocation. Research design tells the type of
data to be collected, the sources of data and the procedures to be followed in data collection.
Research design provides suitable framework that guides the collection and analysis of data.

Few Characteristics of Research Design

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to
be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum
information and provides a opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem is
considered to be the most appropriate efficient design. Thus the question of a good design is
related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the
problem to be studied.
 Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and
scoring of the responses. The research design should permit the measuring
instruments which are fairly objective in which every observer or judge scoring the
performance must precisely give the same report. In other words, the objectivity of
the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores
assigned to different individuals by more than one independent observer. This
ensures the objectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis and
drawing generalizations.
 Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency through out a series of measurements.
For eg: if a respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give
the same response to that item even if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his
response to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should
frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or
reliability.
 Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures
what it is expected to measure. For eg: an intelligence test concucted for measuring
the I.Q should measure only the intelligence and nothing else, and the questionnaire
shall be framed accordingly.

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  Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be
utilized for drawing certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which
sample is drawn. Thus a research design helps an investigator to generalize his
findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting the
sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. Thus a good research design is
one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that:
 The measuring instrument can yield objective, reliable and valid data.
 It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants.
 The population is clearly defined.
 It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction.
 It reduces wastage of time and cost.
 It encourages co-ordination and effective organization.
 Most appropriate techniques of sample selection is used to form an appropriate
sample.
 Appropriate statically analysis has been carried out, and
it is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when
the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light
and insight into the study deepens.
 It has also to be kept within the manageable limits.
 The finding of the study is capable of generalisations.

Exploratory Research:
A marketing research study may be either exploratory or full scale. Exploratory
research is conducted when the researcher does not know how and why certain phenomenon
occurs. Here, the hypothetical solutions or actions are explored and evaluated by the
decision-maker, e.g. evaluation of quality of service of a bank/hotel/airline. Here, the quality
cannot be assessed directly as tangible features are not available.
The purpose of exploratory research is to know the unknown. Exploratory research
determines fruitful alternatives that the executive would not have perceived. This also
narrows down the scope of the investigation. Exploratory research is undertaken to get the
answer to the following question. "What alternative courses of action might solve the
problem and thereby reach the final objective?" This research is unstructured in character.
Exploratory studies are important. They may provide adequate information on a decision
situation or may greatly facilitate the design of formal research studies. To explore means to
find out or discover. Exploratory research is conducted in order to find out causes/reasons
behind a specific marketing problem. It is the starting point in all types of research projects.
The purpose of exploratory research is to define the marketing problem precisely, collect
required information/data relating to the problem and identify alternative courses of action in
order to deal with the marketing problem. For example, advertising campaign of a company
may not give positive results in terms of sales. The failure of campaign may be due to many
possible causes relating to advertising copy, media selected, faulty pre-testing, faulty
illustration give, wrong timing of ad. Campaign or finally inadequate follow-up measures to
the ad Campaign. In the exploratory research, the possible causes will be identified, the most
appropriate causes will be selected, hypothesis will be developed and research activity will be
conducted accordingly. Survey of consumers, retailers, sales executives and sales-force will
be useful for exploratory research. On some occasions, small scale sales survey may provide
useful data for exploratory research.
In exploratory research, the stress/focus is on the discovery of ideas/causes. For
example, sales may be declining for the last six months. Quick study may be conducted to

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find out the causes/factors responsible. Such causes will be listed. Here, an exploratory
study/research may be conducted in order to find out the most likely cause so as to introduce
suitable remedial measures.
The objective of exploratory research is to generate/discover new ideas. The
secondary/published data can be used for exploratory research as such data are easily
available. If the services of respondents are used (for survey purpose), they should be given
full freedom to express themselves. The same rule should be made applicable to focus
groups. Exploratory research is useful for the study of marketing problems about which
sufficient information/details are not available. Exploratory study needs to be flexible in its
approach.
Exploratory Research is used:
• To define the problem more precisely
• To identify relevant courses of action i.e. find the most likely alternatives, which are then
turned into hypotheses.
• Isolate key variables and relationships for further examinations.
• Gain insights for developing an approach to a problem.
• Establish priorities for further research.

Once a hypothesis is formulated, research is used to determine if the hypothesis was correct.
Hypothesis is tentative answers to questions that serve as guides for most research projects.
Exploratory research may also be involved when the perceived problem is much less general;
it is used to develop the most promising hypotheses. The findings of exploratory research
should be regarded as tentative or as an input to further research. Typically, such research is
followed by further exploratory or conclusive research. The analysis of primary data is
qualitative.
In general, exploratory research is meaningful in any situation in which the researcher
does not have enough understanding to proceed with the research project.

Descriptive and Diagnostics Research:

Descriptive research studies are concerned with describing the characteristics of
certain individuals or a group. E.g. studies concerning whether certain variables are
associated. Diagnostic research studies determine the frequency of with which something
occurs or its association with something else. E.g. studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation. The descriptive as well as diagnostic research studies share common requirements.
In both the studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods of measuring it. The aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information; hence, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. It should make
enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability. The design must
be rigid and not flexible. Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher desires to
know the characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, occupation, income or education.
The objective of descriptive research is to answer the "who, what, when, where and how" of
the subject under study/investigation.
Descriptive studies are normally factual and simple. However, such studies can be
complex, demanding scientific skill on the part of researcher. Descriptive studies are well
structured. It tends to be rigid and its approach cannot be changed often and again. In
descriptive studies, the researcher has to give adequate thought to framing research questions
and deciding the data to be collected and the procedure to be used for this purpose. Data
collected may prove to be inadequate if the researcher is not careful in the initial stages of

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data collection. Descriptive research designs are used for some definite purpose. Descriptive
research cannot identify cause and effect relationship.
Descriptive research is designed to describe the present situation or the features of a
group or users of a product. In marketing, such research is undertaken to know the
characteristics of certain groups or users of a product such as age, sex education, income etc.
Such research studies are based on secondary data or survey research.

Descriptive research following should be focused:

a) Formulating the objective of the study (what is the study about and why is it being made.
b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted)
c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed)
d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period
should the data be related)
e) Processing and analyzing the data.
f) Reporting the findings.

Difference between Exploratory and Descriptive research

Research Types of study

Design

Exploratory of Descriptive /
formulative Diagnostic

Overall design Flexible design (design must
provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of
the problem)
(i) sampling Non- probability sampling
design design (purposive or judgement
sampling)
Rigid design (design must make
enough provision for protection
against and must maximize
reliability)
Probability sampling design
(random sampling)

(ii) statistical No pre-planned design for Pre-planned design for analysis

design analysis
(iii) observational Unstructured instruments for Structured or well thought out
design collection of data instruments for collection of data

(iv) operational No fixed design about the Advanced decisions about

design operational procedure operational procedures

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Q 4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific
examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research.

Nowadays research methodologies have been intensively changed and adapted. Case
study is a method used by researchers to excel at bringing an understanding of the complex
issue and can extend experience or add strength to what already known through previous
research. Here, we discuss the use of case study method, its application, data collection and
analysis together with ethical consideration of case study as a research method in business
area.
Case studies typically examine the interplay among variables to provide comprehensive
understanding through a thick description process which in-depth describes the entity,
circumstances and characteristics being evaluated. Business researcher prefers case study
when how and why questions are asked and may choose to collect data from one or multi-
modal approach. New key factors may emerge or unexpected patterns are found and these
may become the basis for new questions which link to the further business research. To make
sense of the qualitative data from case study, holistic and coding analyses are employed to
draw conclusion from text as a whole. Despite the difficulty test for validity of case study
statistical analysis result, case study approach allows flexibility for researchers to compare
their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained from other research
methods and establish a bridge for the gap between abstract research and concrete practice
research. Certain ethical issues should be considered for case study, for example, the bias of
the result induced through the power of the financed persons, and this may conflict the
credibility of the research study.
Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and
Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and suggested techniques for
organizing and conducting the research successfully. This introduction to case study research
draws upon their work and proposes six steps that should be used:
• Determine and define the research questions
• Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
• Prepare to collect the data
• Collect data in the field
• Evaluate and analyze the data
• Prepare the report

Applying the Case Study Method to an Electronic Community Network

By way of example, we apply these six steps to an example study of multiple participants in
an electronic community network. All participants are non-profit organizations which have
chosen an electronic community network on the World Wide Web as a method of delivering
information to the public. The case study method is applicable to this set of users because it
can be used to examine the issue of whether or not the electronic community network is
beneficial in some way to the organization and what those benefits might be.
Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions
In general, electronic community networks have three distinct types of users, each one a good
candidate for case study research. The three groups of users include people around the world
who use the electronic community network, the non-profit organizations using the electronic
community network to provide information to potential users of their services, and the

15
"community" that forms as the result of interacting with other participants on the electronic
community network.
In this case, the researcher is primarily interested in determining whether or not the electronic
community network is beneficial in some way to non-profit organization participants. The
researcher begins with a review of the literature to determine what prior studies have
determined about this issue and uses the literature to define the following questions for the
study of the non-profit organizations providing information to the electronic community
network:
Why do non-profit organization participants use the network?
How do non-profit organization participants determine what to place on the electronic
community network?
Do the non-profit organization participants believe the community network serves a useful
purpose in furthering their mission? How?
Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques
Many communities have constructed electronic community networks on the World Wide
Web. At the outset of the design phase, the researcher determines that only one of these
networks will be studied and further sets the study boundaries to include only some of the
non-profit organizations represented on that one network. The researcher contacts the Board
of Directors of the community network, who are open to the idea of the case study. The
researcher also gathers computer generated log data from the network and, using this data,
determines that an in-depth study of representative organizations from four categories --
health care, environmental, education, and religious -- is feasible. The investigator applies
additional selection criteria so that an urban-based and a rural-based non-profit are
represented in the study in order to examine whether urban non-profits perceive more
benefits from community networks than rural organizations.
The researcher considers multiple sources of data for this study and selects document
examination, the gathering and study of organizational documents such as administrative
reports, agendas, letters, minutes, and news clippings for each of the organizations. In this
case, the investigator decides to also conduct open-ended interviews with key members of
each organization using a check-list to guide interviewers during the interview process so that
uniformity and consistency can be assured in the data, which could include facts, opinions,
and unexpected insights. In this case study, the researcher cannot employ direct observation
as a tool because some of the organizations involved have no office and meet infrequently to
conduct business directly related to the electronic community network. The researcher instead
decides to survey all Board members of the selected organizations using a questionnaire as a
third data gathering tool. Within-case and cross-case analysis of data are selected as analysis
techniques.
Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data
The researcher prepares to collect data by first contacting each organization to be studied to
gain their cooperation, explain the purpose of the study, and assemble key contact
information. Since data to be collected and examined includes organizational documents, the
researcher states his intent to request copies of these documents, and plans for storage,
classification, and retrieval of these items, as well as the interview and survey data. The
researcher develops a formal investigator training program to include seminar topics on non-
profit organizations and their structures in each of the four categories selected for this study.
The training program also includes practice sessions in conducting open-ended interviews
and documenting sources, suggested field notes formats, and a detailed explanation of the
purpose of the case study. The researcher selects a fifth case as a pilot case, and the
investigators apply the data gathering tools to the pilot case to determine whether the planned
timeline is feasible and whether or not the interview and survey questions are appropriate and

16
effective. Based on the results of the pilot, the researcher makes adjustments and assigns
investigators particular cases which become their area of expertise in the evaluation and
analysis of the data.

Step 4. Collect Data in the Field

Investigators first arrange to visit with the Board of Directors of each non-profit organization
as a group and ask for copies of the organization�s mission, news clippings, brochures, and
any other written material describing the organization and its purpose. The investigator
reviews the purpose of the study with the entire Board, schedules individual interview times
with as many Board members as can cooperate, confirms key contact data, and requests that
all Board members respond to the written survey which will be mailed later.
Investigators take written notes during the interview and record field notes after the interview
is completed. The interviews, although open-ended, are structured around the research
questions defined at the start of the case study.
Research Question: Why do non-profit organization participants use the network?
Interview Questions: How did the organization make the decision to place data on the World
Wide Web community network? What need was the organization hoping to fulfill?
Research Question: How do non-profit organization participants determine what to place on
the electronic community network?
Interview Questions: What process was used to select the information that would be used on
the network? How is the information kept up to date?
Research Question: Do the non-profit organization participants believe the community
network serves a useful purpose in furthering their mission? How?
Interview Questions: How does the organization know if the electronic community network is
beneficial to the organization? How does the electronic community network further the
mission of the organization? What systematic tracking mechanisms exist to determine how
many or what types of users are accessing the organization information?
The investigator�s field notes record impressions and questions that might assist with the
interpretation of the interview data. The investigator makes note of stories told during open-
ended interviews and flags them for potential use in the final report. Data is entered into the
database.
The researcher mails written surveys to all Board members with a requested return date and a
stamped return envelope. Once the surveys are returned, the researcher codes and enters the
data into the database so that it can be used independently as well as integrated when the case
study progresses to the point of cross-case examination of data for all four cases.
Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data
Within-case analysis is the first analysis technique used with each non-profit organization
under study. The assigned investigator studies each organization�s written documentation
and survey response data as a separate case to identify unique patterns within the data for that
single organization. Individual investigators prepare detailed case study write-ups for each
organization, categorizing interview questions and answers and examining the data for
within-group similarities and differences.
Cross-case analysis follows. Investigators examine pairs of cases, categorizing the similarities
and differences in each pair. Investigators then examine similar pairs for differences, and
dissimilar pairs for similarities. As patterns begin to emerge, certain evidence may stand out
as being in conflict with the patterns. In those cases, the investigator conducts follow-up
focused interviews to confirm or correct the initial data in order to tie the evidence to the
findings and to state relationships in answer to the research questions.

Step 6 Prepare the Report

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The outline of the report includes thanking all of the participants, stating the problem, listing
the research questions, describing the methods used to conduct the research and any potential
flaws in the method used, explaining the data gathering and analysis techniques used, and
concluding with the answers to the questions and suggestions for further research. Key
features of the report include a retelling of specific stories related to the successes or
disappointments experienced by the organizations that were conveyed during data collection,
and answers or comments illuminating issues directly related to the research questions. The
researcher develops each issue using quotations or other details from the data collected, and
points out the triangulation of data where applicable. The report also includes confirming and
conflicting findings from literature reviews. The report conclusion makes assertions and
suggestions for further research activity, so that another researcher may apply these
techniques to another electronic community network and its participants to determine
whether similar findings are identifiable in other communities. Final report distribution
includes all participants.

Similarly, For Galileo Galilei’s rejection of Aristotle’s law of gravity was based on a
case study selected by information-oriented sampling and not random sampling. The rejection
consisted primarily of a conceptual experiment and later on of a practical one. These
experiments, with the benefit of hindsight, are self-evident. Nevertheless, Aristotle’s incorrect
view of gravity dominated scientific inquiry for nearly two thousand years before it was
falsified. In his experimental thinking, Galileo reasoned as follows: if two objects with the
same weight are released from the same height at the same time, they will hit the ground
simultaneously, having fallen at the same speed. If the two objects are then stuck together
into one, this object will have double the weight and will according to the Aristotelian view
therefore fall faster than the two individual objects. This conclusion seemed contradictory to
Galileo. The only way to avoid the contradiction was to eliminate weight as a determinant
factor for acceleration in free fall. Galileo’s experimentalism did not involve a large random
sample of trials of objects falling from a wide range of randomly selected heights under
varying wind conditions, and so on. Rather, it was a matter of a single experiment, that is, a
case study.

Galileo’s view continued to be subjected to doubt, however, and the Aristotelian view was
not finally rejected until half a century later, with the invention of the air pump. The air pump
made it possible to conduct the ultimate experiment, known by every pupil, whereby a coin
or a piece of lead inside a vacuum tube falls with the same speed as a feather. After this
experiment, Aristotle’s view could be maintained no longer. What is especially worth noting,
however, is that the matter was settled by an individual case due to the clever choice of the
extremes of metal and feather. One might call it a critical case, for if Galileo’s thesis held for
these materials, it could be expected to be valid for all or a large range of materials. Random
and large samples were at no time part of the picture. However it was Galileo's view that was
the subject of doubt as it was not reasonable enough to be the Aristotelian view. By selecting
cases strategically in this manner one may arrive at case studies that allow generalization.

Conclusion

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Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may
include multiple cases within a study, and produce large amounts of data for analysis.
Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to
produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis
to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The
advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human
situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate
directly to the common reader’s everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of
complex real-life situations.

Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or
interviewing would be more appropriate.

Observation
In the method of data collection called observation, the researcher observes participants in
natural and/or structured environments.
• It is important to collect observational data (in addition to attitudinal data) because
what people say is not always what they do!
Observation can be carried out in two types of environments:
• Laboratory observation (which is done in a lab set up by the researcher).
• Naturalistic observation (which is done in real-world settings).
There are two important forms of observation: quantitative observation and qualitative
observation.
1) Quantitative observation involves standardization procedures, and it produces
quantitative data.
• The following can be standardized:
- Who is observed?
- What is observed?
- When the observations are to take place.
- Where the observations are to take place.
- How the observations are to take place.
• Standardized instruments (e.g., checklists) are often used in quantitative observation.
• Sampling procedures are also often used in quantitative observation:
--Time-interval sampling (i.e., observing during time intervals, e.g., during the
first minute of each 10 minute interval).
--Event sampling (i.e., observing after an event has taken place, e.g., observing
after teacher asks a question).

2) Qualitative observation is exploratory and open- ended, and the researcher takes extensive
field notes.

The qualitative observer may take on four different roles that make up a continuum:
• Complete participant (i.e., becoming a full member of the group and not informing
the participants that you are studying them).
• Participant-as-Observer (i.e., spending extensive time "inside" and informing the
participants that you are studying them).

19
 • Observer-as-Participant (i.e., spending a limited amount of time "inside" and
informing them that you are studying them).
• Complete Observer (i.e., observing from the "outside" and not informing that
participants that you are studying them).

Strengths of observational data

• Allows one to directly see what people do without having to rely on what they say they do.
• Provides firsthand experience, especially if the observer participates in activities.
• Can provide relatively objective measurement of behavior (especially for standardized
observations).
• Observer can determine what does not occur.
• Observer may see things that escape the awareness of people in the setting.
• Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting.
• Helps in understanding importance of contextual factors.
• Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills.
• May provide information on things people would otherwise be unwilling to talk about.
• Observer may move beyond selective perceptions of people in the setting.
• Good for description.
• Provides moderate degree of realism (when done outside of the laboratory).

Weaknesses of observational data

• Reasons for observed behavior may be unclear.
• Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are being observed (e.g., people
being observed may behave in atypical ways).
• Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective perception of observers)
• Observer may “go native” (i.e., over-identifying with the group being studied).
• Sampling of observed people and settings may be limited.
• Cannot observe large or dispersed populations.
• Some settings and content of interest cannot be observed.
• Collection of unimportant material may be moderately high.
• More expensive to conduct than questionnaires and tests.
• Data analysis can be time consuming.

Interviews
In an interview, the interviewer asks the interviewee questions (in-person or over the
telephone).
• Trust and rapport are important.
• Probing is available (unlike in paper-and-pencil questionnaires) and is used to reach
clarity or gain additional information
• Here are some examples of standard probes:
- Anything else?
- Any other reason?
- What do you mean?
Interviews may be quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative interviews
• Are standardized (i.e., the same information is provided to everyone).
• Use closed-ended questions.
• Exhibit 8.1 has an example of an interview protocol. Note that it looks very much like
a questionnaire! The key difference between an interview protocol and a

20
 questionnaire is that the interview protocol is read by the interviewer who also records
the answers (you have probably participated in telephone surveys before...you were
interviewed).
Qualitative interviews
• They are based on open-ended questions.
• There are three types of qualitative interviews.
1) Informal Conversational Interview.
- It is spontaneous.
- It is loosely structured (i.e., no interview protocol is used).

2) Interview Guide Approach.

• It is more structured than the informal conversational interview.
• It includes an interview protocol listing the open-ended questions.
• The questions can be asked in any order by the interviewer.
• Question wording can be changed by the interviewer if it is deemed appropriate.

3) Standardized Open-Ended Interview.

• Open-ended questions are written on an interview protocol, and they are asked in the
exact order given on the protocol.
• The wording of the questions cannot be changed.

Strengths of interviews
• Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest.
• Allows probing and posing of follow-up questions by the interviewer.
• Can provide in-depth information.
• Can provide information about participants’ internal meanings and ways of thinking.
• Closed-ended interviews provide exact information needed by researcher.
• Telephone and e-mail interviews provide very quick turnaround.
• Moderately high measurement validity (i.e., high reliability and validity) for well constructed
and tested interview protocols.
• Can use with probability samples.
• Relatively high response rates are often attainable.
• Useful for exploration as well as confirmation.

Weaknesses of interviews
• In-person interviews usually are expensive and time consuming.
• Reactive effects (e.g., interviewees may try to show only what is socially desirable).
• Investigator effects may occur (e.g., untrained interviewers may distort data because of
personal biases and poor interviewing skills).
• Interviewees may not recall important information and may lack self-awareness.
• Perceived anonymity by respondents may be low.
• Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended items.
• Measures need validation.

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Example
Swinhoe’s Softshell Turtle (Rafetus swinhoei) is a large soft-shell turtle species which can
reach a size greater than 150kg. Rafetus swinhoei is among the 23 species of tortoise and
freshwater turtle native to Vietnam, and is currently listed as critically endangered by the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2005). Moreover, the species is
considered by many turtle conservationists to be the most endangered chelonian in the world.
With no known populations existing in the wild it is likely that a combination of habitat loss
and hunting, primarily for local consumption, have resulted in a dramatic decline in this large
softshell species throughout its range in recent decades. At present only six live specimens
are know in existence in the world. Five of these in Chinese zoos and temple ponds, and a
single individual survives in Hoan Kiem Lake located in the center of Hanoi, Vietnam. The
focus of this interview and observation study was to learn more about the seasonal and daily
behaviour of the individual Rafetus swinhoei existing in Hoan Kiem Lake.

Description of the site: Hoan Kiem Lake is a small lake situated in the centre of Hanoi,
surrounded on all sides by roads, the lake is approximately 11.6 hectares, 653 meters in
length and 242 meters wide. The water level of the lake fluctuates depending on the season.
Interviews were conducted around Hoan Kiem. Interview subjects comprised of
individuals who utilize the small park area that encircles the lake. Interview subjects were
selected during different times of the day. During interviews the subjects were asked to
identifying the season that they most commonly observe Rafetus, the time of day that the
turtle is seen, as well as the type of weather at the time of observation. Subjects are also
asked to point out the specific area in the lake where the turtle is seen.
Observations around Hoan Kiem Lake were also undertaken During observation
periods, the surveyor walked around the lake using binoculars to scan the surface of the lake
and determine if Rafetus was active. Activity was often indicated where bubbles could be
seen on the surface in trails typical of movement along the bottom and occasional emergence
of the turtle’s head to breath.
Results
Interview results
A total of 52 subjects were interviewed. These included exercisers, food vendors,
photographers, public WC attendants, cleaners and park security staff.
According to the interview results Rafetus is active more often during the morning hours
between 0700hrs and 1100hrs, and is rarely seen between 1100hrs to 1800hrs.
Observation results
The reporting officer conducted observations of the lake for Rafetus swinhoei. Typical
observations of Rafetus included stationary or trailing bubbles, observation of the turtle’s
head at the surface, and a few rare cases where the turtle was observed basking on the Turtle
Tower Island at the center of the lake. During the course of the observation period, the turtle
was physically seen 20/21 observation days.
During the observation period it was noted that Rafetus was usually active/moving between
0700hrs and 1500hrs when it was sunny, despite temperatures being low between 17oC and
19oC. While on overcast and cool days when the temperature was below 17oC Rafetus was
mostly inactive.
Conclusion
Based on the results of the interviews and observation study, we may be able to determine the
best season and conditions during which to conduct field studies to try and observe Rafetus
that may still remain in the wild in Yen Bai and Thanh Hoa Provinces of Vietnam. From the
interviews it was indicated that the Rafetus swinhoei in Hoan Kiem Lake is normally more
active during the summer months and is seen more frequently during the morning between

22
0700hrs and 1100hrs. It should however be considered that many of the people interviewed
utilize the lake for exercises during the morning and this may have resulted in some bias
relevant to the outcome of the interviews. During the observation study, Rafetus was seen to
be active at all times between 0700hrs and 1800hrs. Additional observation periods at earlier
and later times would be beneficial to determine if the turtle is also active later in the day or
in the evening.
From the interviews as well as the observations it would appear that Rafetus is more
active within the northwest area of Hoan Kiem Lake, moving between areas 1 and 5,
travelling through section 4. Additional depth data from the lake would be beneficial to
determine if these areas of the lake are any shallower, as it may be possible that the turtle is
observed more in these areas because of reduced depth making the turtle’s movement more
apparent.
The combined results of the interview and observation study clearly suggest that field
teams should concentrate field survey periods in Yen Bai and Thanh Hoa on times of the year
when weather patterns are changing, and that during warm days immediately following cold
or adverse weather, the presence of Rafetus should be able to be confirmed through watching
for surfacing or movement around the target site.

Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to
ascertain reader habits and interests. What type of research report would be most
appropriate? Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections.

There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review:

1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item a good literature review is led by your own
critical thought processes - it is not simply a catalogue of what has been written. Once you
have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each group in turn and really think
about what you want to achieve in presenting them this way. This is your opportunity for
showing that you did not take all your reading at face value, but that you have the knowledge
and skills to interpret the authors' meanings and intentions in relation to each other,
particularly if there are conflicting views or incompatible findings in a particular area.
Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgment in the literature surrounding a topic
is a gradual process of gaining familiarity with the concepts, language, terminology and
conventions in the field. In the early stages of your research you cannot be expected to have a
fully developed appreciation of the implications of all findings.

2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body through your reading and discussions with
your supervisor during the searching and organising phases of the cycle, you will eventually
reach a final decision as to your own topic and research design. As you begin to group
together the items you read, the direction of your literature review will emerge with greater
clarity. This is a good time to finalise your concept map, grouping linked items, ideas and
authors into firm categories as they relate more obviously to your own study.
Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your own intentions
and conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to convey will help you decide
the most appropriate structure.
A review can take many forms; for example:

23
An historical survey of theory and research in your field
A synthesis of several paradigms
A process of narrowing down to your own topic
It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these.
The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be explored.
The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections and subsections.
The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major authors in association with
their main ideas and areas of debate. The section then expands on these ideas and authors,
showing how each relates to the others, and how the debate informs your understanding of
the topic. A short conclusion at the end of each section presents a synthesis of these linked
ideas. The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from each of
your sections and this is then used to build the framework for your own study. Later, when
you come to write the discussion chapter of your thesis, you should be able to relate your
findings in one-to-one correspondence with many of the concepts or questions that were
firmed up in the conclusion of your literature review.

3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct quoting,
paraphrasing and summarizing) you can treat published literature like any other data, but the
difference is that it is not data you generated yourself. In turn, this is significant in the
assessment of the merit and rigor of your work. There are three ways to combine an idea and
its source with your own voice:
Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:
'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith 1988, page 27).
If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to enclose it, and
it must be an identical copy of the original in every respect. Overuse or simple 'listing' of
quotes can substantially weaken your own argument by silencing your critical view or voice.
Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the author's intended
meaning: As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be indicated by the
presence of cloud in the sky. Paraphrasing allows you to organize the ideas expressed by the
authors without being rigidly constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the
original. You retain a degree of flexibility as to whose voice comes through most strongly.
Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by restating the main
points in your own words and in the order in which you found them. The original writing is
'described' as if from the outside, and it is your own voice that is predominant:
Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988) predicted the likelihood of
rain.

4. Using appropriate language

Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are dealing with
the subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature. Once you have established a good
structure with appropriate headings for your literature review, and once you are confident in
controlling the voice in your citations, you should find that your writing becomes more lucid
and fluent because you know what you want to say and how to say it. The good use of
language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the writing, and on the context of the
writing. You need to conform to discipline-specific requirements. However, there may still be
some points of grammar and vocabulary you would like to improve. If you have doubts about
your confidence to use the English language well, you can help yourself in several ways:
Ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and academics
Look for specific language information in reference materials
Access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be available on your campus

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Grammar tips - practical and helpful
The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful.
Which tense should I use?
Use present tense: For generalizations and claims.
To convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the time of For authors'
statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be compared on
In referring to components of your own document:
Use present perfect tense for:
Recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to the present:
Use simple past tense for:
Completed events or actions:
Use past perfect tense for:
Events which occurred before a specified past time:
Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:
Convey degrees of doubt
Other language tips
Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use an intellectual tone for
the sake of it, and do not rely on your reader to read your mind!
Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a point. Use compound (joined
simple) sentences to write about two or more ideas which may be linked with 'and', 'but',
'because', 'whereas' etc. Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas or
those that show the interaction of two or more complex elements.
Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information more densely than verbs.
Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are highlighting the 'doer' or the
'done to' of the action.
Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of complex sentences in
order to keep subject, verb and object in clear view.
Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.
The total process
The story of a research study
Introduction
I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to investigate
something in particular.

Review of literature
So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and what
had previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would fit into the
big picture, and began to realise at this stage how my study would be different from anything
done previously.

Methodology
I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research question
clearly in mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known research
methods (and perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the broad decision about
which research paradigm I would work within (that is, qualitative/quantitative,
critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then I devised my research instrument to get the best out of
what I was investigating. I knew I would have to analyse the raw data, so I made sure that the
instrument and my proposed method(s) of analysis were compatible right from the start. Then
I carried out the research study and recorded all the data in a methodical way according to my
intended methods of analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my

25
preferred form of classification) to manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs,
categories, etc). It was then that I began to realise what I had found.

Findings/results
What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be pinned
down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from these records, but
in writing my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly significant to make sure my
readers did not miss it. For each display of results, I wrote a corresponding summary of
important observations relating only elements within my own set of results and comparing
only like with like. I was careful not to let my own interpretations intrude or voice my
excitement just yet. I wanted to state the facts - just the facts. I dealt correctly with all
inferential statistical procedures, applying tests of significance where appropriate to ensure
both reliability and validity. I knew that I wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky
clean as possible. They would carry a great deal more credibility, strength and thereby
academic 'clout' if I took no shortcuts and remained both rigorous and scholarly.

Discussion
Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find in the
results that answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had some answers?
What about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the results correctly?
Could there have been any other factors involved? Were my findings supported or contested
by the results of similar studies? Where did that leave mine in terms of contribution to my
field? Can I actually generalise from my findings in a breakthrough of some kind, or do I
simply see myself as reinforcing existing knowledge? And so what, after all? There were
some obvious limitations to my study, which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't
become over-apologetic about the things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the
fascinating byways sadly left behind. I have my memories.

Conclusion
We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How did
I end up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few clear,
succinct sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap up with
whatever generalizations I can make, and whatever implications have arisen in my mind as a
result of doing this thing at all. The more you find out, the more questions arise. How I
wonder what you are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do we all go from here?

Three stages of research

1. Reading
2. Research design and implementation
3. Writing up the research report or thesis
Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft.

Establishing good practice

1. Keep your research question always in mind.
2. Read widely to establish a context for your research.
3. Read widely to collect information, which may relate to your topic, particularly to your
hypothesis or research question.
4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records.
5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need.

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6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of mind, changes of
mind, reactions to experimental outcomes etc.
7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others.
8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other research data,
remembering to date each entry, and noting any discrepancies or unexpected occurrences at
the time you notice them.
9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you have frameworks
to fit findings into straightaway.
10. Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the start.
11. Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead about the way you
will consider and store new information as it comes to light.

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