Q 1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of
research, explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c) Diagnostic
research d) Evaluation research.
Ans.: Research may be classified crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According
to the intent, research may be classified as:
Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a
scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent
something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic
research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?
Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all branches of science is
needed in order for progress to take place. In other words, basic research lays down the
foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs
often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannot
foresee the future well enough to predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only
did applied research, we would still be making better spears."
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to
improve the human condition.
Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic
research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems
resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.
Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. It
should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory research is a type of
research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps
determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. Given its
fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not
actually exist.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature
and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees,
management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus
groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for research
methods that are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with
up-to-date information; major search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers
by services such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy
periods of time by services such as Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to attract
worldwide feedback on any subject.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but
they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative
research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot
tell us "how often" or "how many."
Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large.
A defining characteristic of causal research is the random assignment of participants to the
conditions of the experiment; e.g., an Experimental and a Control Condition... Such assignment
results in the groups being comparable at the beginning of the experiment. Any difference
between the groups at the end of the experiment is attributable to the manipulated variable.
Observational research typically looks for difference among "in-tact" defined groups. A common
example compares smokers and non-smokers with regard to health problems. Causal
conclusions can't be drawn from such a study because of other possible differences between the
groups; e.g., smokers may drink more alcohol than non-smokers. Other unknown differences
could exist as well. Hence, we may see a relation between smoking and health but a conclusion
that smoking is a cause would not be warranted in this situation. (Cp)
Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics
about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions
who, what, where, when and how.
Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe
what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal
relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said
to have a low requirement for internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best
approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative
research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of
why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there are
always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the life of the people around
you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The
reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a
healthy life.
Diagnostic study: it is similar to descriptive study but with different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the
problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods
for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test
of significance.
Evaluation Studies: it is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of development of the
project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its
performance and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned
with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with
change over time.
Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working
with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address
issues and solve problems. Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or
institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their
strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers
and stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to help their
community improve its work practices (Center for Collaborative Action Research). Kurt Lewin,
then a professor at MIT, first coined the term “action research” in about 1944, and it appears in
his 1946 paper “Action Research and Minority Problems”. In that paper, he described action
research as “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social
action and research leading to social action” that uses “a spiral of steps, each of which is
composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action”.
Action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving actions
implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to
understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organizational
change (Reason & Bradbury, 2001). After six decades of action research development, many
methodologies have evolved that adjust the balance to focus more on the actions taken or more
on the research that results from the reflective understanding of the actions. This tension exists
between
● those that are more driven by the researcher’s agenda to those more driven by
participants;
• Those that are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment to those motivated
primarily by the aim of personal, organizational, or societal transformation; and
• 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed
primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed
primarily at improving the group; and ‘scholarly’ research aimed primarily at
theoretical generalization and/or large scale change.
Action research challenges traditional social science, by moving beyond reflective knowledge
created by outside experts sampling variables to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data
collecting, and inquiring occurring in the midst of emergent structure. “Knowledge is always
gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity of social
knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but how to
develop genuinely well-informed action — how to conduct an action science” (Tolbert 2001).
Q 2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a) Null and
alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one tailed test d)
Parametric and non-parametric tests.
Ans.: Some basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses are explained below -
11) Null Hypotheses and Alternative Hypotheses: In the context of statistical analysis,
we often talk about null and alternative hypotheses. If we are to compare the
superiority of method A with that of method B and we proceed on the assumption that
both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as a null hypothesis.
On the other hand, if we think that method A is superior, then it is known as an
alternative hypothesis.
These are symbolically represented as:
Null hypothesis = H0 and Alternative hypothesis = Ha
Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the hypothesized
mean (µ H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypothesis is that the population mean is
equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolically we can express it as: H0: µ= µ H0=100
If our sample results do not support this null hypothesis, we should conclude that something else
is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as an alternative hypothesis. If
we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then we are accepting Ha. For H0:
µ= µ H0=100, we may consider three possible alternative hypotheses as follows:
Ha: µ>µ H0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is greater than
100)
Ha: µ< µ H0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is less than 100)
The null hypotheses and the alternative hypotheses are chosen before the sample is drawn (the
researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypotheses from the data he collects and testing the
hypotheses from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis, the following considerations are
usually kept in view:
1a. The alternative hypothesis is usually the one, which is to be proved, and the null
hypothesis is the one that is to be disproved. Thus a null hypothesis represents
the hypothesis we are trying to reject, while the alternative hypothesis represents
all other possibilities.
2b. If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, it
is taken as null hypothesis, because then the probability of rejecting it when it is
true is α (the level of significance) which is chosen very small.
3c. The null hypothesis should always be a specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state
an approximate value.
Generally, in hypothesis testing, we proceed on the basis of the null hypothesis, keeping the
alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on the assumption that the null
hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample results, but this
cannot be done if we proceed with alternative hypotheses. Hence the use of null hypotheses (at
times also known as statistical hypotheses) is quite frequent.
12) The Level of Significance: This is a very important concept in the context of
hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually 5%), which should be
chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case we take the significance
level at 5%, then this implies that H0 will be rejected when the sampling result
(i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if H0 is
true. In other words, the 5% level of significance means that the researcher is
willing to take as much as 5% risk rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0)
happens to be true. Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the
probability of rejecting H0 when it is true and is usually determined in advance
before testing the hypothesis.
23) Decision Rule or Test of Hypotheses: Given a hypothesis Ha and an
alternative hypothesis H0, we make a rule, which is known as a decision rule,
according to which we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha).
For instance, if H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items
in it), against Ha, that the lot is not good (there are many defective items in it),
then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. We might test 10 items in the lot and plan
our decision saying that if there are none or only 1 defective item among the 10,
we will accept H0; otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort of basis is
known as a decision rule.
34) Type I & II Errors: In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two
types of errors that we can make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may
accept H0 when it is not true. The former is known as Type I and the latter is
known as Type II. In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypotheses,
which should have been accepted, and Type II error means accepting of
hypotheses, which should have been rejected. Type I error is denoted by α
(alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error is denoted by
β(beta).
Decision
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 (true) Correct decision Type I error (α error)
Ho (false) Type II error (β error) Correct decision
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the level of
significance of testing the hypotheses. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there are about 5
chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I error just by fixing it
at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the maximum probability of
committing type I error would only be 0.01.
But with a fixed sample size n, when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of committing
type II error increases. Both types of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously, since there is a
trade-off in business situations. Decision makers decide the appropriate level of type I error by
examining the costs of penalties attached to both types of errors. If type I error involves time and
trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted, whereas type II error
means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be
poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error. As a result,
one must set a very high level for type I error in one’s testing techniques of a given hypothesis.
Hence, in testing of hypotheses, one must make all possible efforts to strike an adequate balance
between Type I & Type II error.
15) Two Tailed Test & One Tailed Test: In the context of hypothesis testing, these two terms
are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if,
say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of
the population. Such a test is inappropriate when we have H0: µ= µ H0 and Ha: µ≠µ H0 which
may µ>µ H0 or µ<µ H0. If significance level is 5 % and the two-tailed test is to be applied, the
probability of the rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of the curve as 0.025) and
that of the acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our sample mean deviates
significantly from µ, in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are situations when
only a one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to
test, say, whether the population mean is either lower or higher than some hypothesized value.
Parametric statistics is a branch of statistics that assumes data come from a type of probability
distribution and makes inferences about the parameters of the distribution most well known
elementary statistical methods are parametric.
Generally speaking parametric methods make more assumptions than non-parametric
methods. If those extra assumptions are correct, parametric methods can produce more accurate
and precise estimates. They are said to have more statistical power. However, if those
assumptions are incorrect, parametric methods can be very misleading. For that reason they are
often not considered robust. On the other hand, parametric formulae are often simpler to write
down and faster to compute. In some, but definitely not all cases, their simplicity makes up for
their non-robustness, especially if care is taken to examine diagnostic statistics.
Because parametric statistics require a probability distribution, they are not distribution-free.
Non-parametric models differ from parametric models in that the model structure is not
specified a priori but is instead determined from data. The term nonparametric is not meant to
imply that such models completely lack parameters but that the number and nature of the
parameters are flexible and not fixed in advance.
Kernel density estimation provides better estimates of the density than histograms.
Nonparametric regression and semi parametric regression methods have been developed based
on kernels, splines, and wavelets.
Data Envelopment Analysis provides efficiency coefficients similar to those obtained
by Multivariate Analysis without any distributional assumption.
Q 3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship and correlation, with an example
of each. What are the possible reasons for a correlation between two variables?
Ans.: Correlation: The correlation is knowing what the consumer wants, and providing it.
Marketing research looks at trends in sales and studies all of the variables, i.e. price, color,
availability, and styles, and the best way to give the customer what he or she wants. If you can
give the customer what they want, they will buy, and let friends and family know where they got it.
Making them happy makes the money.
Casual relationship Marketing was first defined as a form of marketing developed from direct
response marketing campaigns, which emphasizes customer retention and satisfaction, rather
than a dominant focus on sales transactions.
As a practice, Relationship Marketing differs from other forms of marketing in that it recognizes
the long term value of customer relationships and extends communication beyond intrusive
advertising and sales promotional messages.
With the growth of the internet and mobile platforms, Relationship Marketing has continued to
evolve and move forward as technology opens more collaborative and social communication
channels. This includes tools for managing relationships with customers that goes beyond simple
demographic and customer service data. Relationship Marketing extends to include Inbound
marketing efforts (a combination of search optimization and Strategic Content), PR, Social Media
and Application Development.
Reasons for a correlation between two variables: Chance association, (the relationship is due
to chance) or causative association (one variable causes the other).
The information given by a correlation coefficient is not enough to define the dependence
structure between random variables. The correlation coefficient completely defines the
dependence structure only in very particular cases, for example when the distribution is a
multivariate normal distribution. (See diagram above.) In the case of elliptic distributions it
characterizes the (hyper-)ellipses of equal density, however, it does not completely characterize
the dependence structure (for example, a multivariate t-distribution's degrees of freedom
determine the level of tail dependence).
Distance correlation and Brownian covariance / Brownian correlation [8][9] were introduced to
address the deficiency of Pearson's correlation that it can be zero for dependent random
variables; zero distance correlation and zero Brownian correlation imply independence.
The correlation ratio is able to detect almost any functional dependency, or the entropy-based
mutual information/total correlation which is capable of detecting even more general
dependencies. The latter are sometimes referred to as multi-moment correlation measures, in
comparison to those that consider only 2nd moment (pair wise or quadratic) dependence.
The polychoric correlation is another correlation applied to ordinal data that aims to estimate the
correlation between theorized latent variables.
One way to capture a more complete view of dependence structure is to consider a copula
between them.
Q 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique. What
are the characteristics of a good sample?
Ans.: The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that non-probability
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean that
non-probability samples aren't representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does
mean that non-probability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At
least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the
population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With non-probability
samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know
how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods
over non probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous. However, in
applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or
theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of non-probabilistic
alternatives.
Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the
sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these types
of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling approaches.
Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or
more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a
mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and
asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample (and
most likely they are engaged in market research). They might be looking for Caucasian females
between 30-40 years old. They size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that
category they stop to ask if they will participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify
that the respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive sampling can
be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where
sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to
get the opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your
population that are more readily accessible.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive sampling
methods. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in modal instance, expert, or
quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as in heterogeneity sampling. Or, we might
capitalize on informal social networks to identify specific respondents who are hard to locate
otherwise, as in snowball sampling. In all of these methods we know what we want -- we are
sampling with a purpose.
• Expert Sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or demonstrable
experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample under the auspices of
a "panel of experts." There are actually two reasons you might do expert sampling. First, because
it would be the best way to elicit the views of persons who have specific expertise. In this case,
expert sampling is essentially just a specific sub case of purposive sampling. But the other reason
you might use expert sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another sampling
approach you've chosen. For instance, let's say you do modal instance sampling and are
concerned that the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism. You
might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience and insight
into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions and comment on their
appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is that you aren't out on your own trying
to defend your decisions -- you have some acknowledged experts to back you. The disadvantage
is that even the experts can be, and often are, wrong.
• Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, you select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota. There are two
types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional. In proportional quota sampling you
want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount
of each. For instance, if you know the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that you
want a total sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those percentages and
then you will stop. So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but not the sixty men,
you will continue to sample men but even if legitimate women respondents come along, you will
not sample them because you have already "met your quota." The problem here (as in much
purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific characteristics on which you will base
the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education race, religion, etc.?
Non-proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you specify the
minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. Here, you're not concerned with
having numbers that match the proportions in the population. Instead, you simply want to have
enough to assure that you will be able to talk about even small groups in the population. This
method is the non-probabilistic analogue of stratified random sampling in that it is typically used
to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in your sample.
• Heterogeneity Sampling
We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and we aren't
concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for this is sampling for
diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes (including concept mapping), we
would use some form of heterogeneity sampling because our primary interest is in getting broad
spectrum of ideas, not identifying the "average" or "modal instance" ones. In effect, what we
would like to be sampling is not people, but ideas. We imagine that there is a universe of all
possible ideas relevant to some topic and that we want to sample this population, not the
population of people who have the ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the ideas, and especially
the "outlier" or unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of participants.
Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal instance sampling.
• Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in
your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the
criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative samples, there are times when
it may be the best method available. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying
to reach populations that are inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you are studying the
homeless, you are not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people within a specific
geographical area. However, if you go to that area and identify one or two, you may find that they
know very well whom the other homeless people in their vicinity are and how you can find them.
Characteristics of good Sample: The decision process is a complicated one. The researcher
has to first identify the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance the conflicting
factors. The various criteria governing the choice of the sampling technique are:
11. Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to
generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an
appropriate probability sampling method must be selected. The choice of a particular
type of probability sampling depends on the geographical area of the survey and the
size and the nature of the population under study.
22.Measurability: The application of statistical inference theory requires computation of
the sampling error from the sample itself. Only probability samples allow such
computation. Hence, where the research objective requires statistical inference, the
sample should be drawn by applying simple random sampling method or stratified
random sampling method, depending on whether the population is homogenous or
heterogeneous.
33. Degree of Precision: Should the results of the survey be very precise, or could even
rough results serve the purpose? The desired level of precision is one of the criteria
for sampling method selection. Where a high degree of precision of results is desired,
probability sampling should be used. Where even crude results would serve the
purpose (E.g., marketing surveys, readership surveys etc), any convenient non-
random sampling like quota sampling would be enough.
44. Information about Population: How much information is available about the
population to be studied? Where no list of population and no information about its
nature are available, it is difficult to apply a probability sampling method. Then an
exploratory study with non-probability sampling may be done to gain a better idea of
the population. After gaining sufficient knowledge about the population through the
exploratory study, an appropriate probability sampling design may be adopted.
55. The Nature of the Population: In terms of the variables to be studied, is the
population homogenous or heterogeneous? In the case of a homogenous population,
even simple random sampling will give a representative sample. If the population is
heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate.
66. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population: If the area
covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is quite large, multi-
stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the area and the size of the
population are small, single stage probability sampling methods could be used.
77. Financial Resources: If the available finance is limited, it may become necessary to
choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling, or even quota
sampling as a compromise. However, if the objectives of the study and the desired
level of precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget, there is no
alternative but to give up the proposed survey. Where the finance is not a constraint,
a researcher can choose the most appropriate method of sampling that fits the
research objective and the nature of population.
88. Time Limitation: The time limit within which the research project should be
completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a compromise, it may
become necessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple random
sampling, instead of stratified sampling/sampling with probability proportional to size;
or multi-stage cluster sampling, instead of single-stage sampling of elements. Of
course, the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent.
99. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method. It means
achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. A sample is economical if
the precision per unit cost is high, or the cost per unit of variance is low. The above
criteria frequently conflict with each other and the researcher must balance and blend
them to obtain a good sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation
of the sampling theory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a
compromise between idealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable
methods, instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques.
Q 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and
primary sources to gather the required information.
The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low in developing countries like India. Certain
techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are:
11. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed on quality light colored paper,
so as to attract the attention of the respondent.
22. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style, so as to
attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate objections and answer
them briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by name.
33. Advance information: Advance information can be provided to potential respondents by
a telephone call, or advance notice in the newsletter of the concerned organization, or by
a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential respondents is more successful than
follow-up efforts.
44. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to induce
respondents to complete and return the mail questionnaire.
55. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization, they may
be approached through someone in that organization known as the researcher.
66. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than the estimated sample size. For
example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be drawn. This may
help the researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to the required size.
7
8Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to
ascertain reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study; define the
research problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the study.
Research problem: A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel
apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain
context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem
situation.
There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually
contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source
of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain
findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem.
Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
Types of questions to be asked :For more than 35 years, the news about newspapers and
young readers has been mostly bad for the newspaper industry. Long before any competition
from cable television or Nintendo, American newspaper publishers were worrying about declining
readership among the young.
As early as 1960, at least 20 years prior to Music Television (MTV) or the Internet, media
research scholars1 began to focus their studies on young adult readers' decreasing interest in
newspaper content. The concern over a declining youth market preceded and perhaps
foreshadowed today's fretting over market penetration. Even where circulation has grown or
stayed stable, there is rising concern over penetration, defined as the percentage of occupied
households in a geographic market that are served by a newspaper.2 Simply put, population
growth is occurring more rapidly than newspaper readership in most communities.
This study looks at trends in newspaper readership among the 18-to-34 age group and examines
some of the choices young adults make when reading newspapers.
One of the underlying concerns behind the decline in youth newspaper reading is the question of
how young people view the newspaper. A number of studies explored how young readers
evaluate and use newspaper content.
Comparing reader content preferences over a 10-year period, Gerald Stone and Timothy
Boudreau found differences between readers ages 18-34 and those 35-plus.16 Younger readers
showed increased interest in national news, weather, sports, and classified advertisements over
the decade between 1984 and 1994, while older readers ranked weather, editorials, and food
advertisements higher. Interest in international news and letters to the editor was less among
younger readers, while older readers showed less interest in reports of births, obituaries, and
marriages.
In an exploration of leisure reading among college students, Leo Jeffres and Atkin assessed
dimensions of interest in newspapers, magazines, and books,19 exploring the influence of media
use, non-media leisure, and academic major on newspaper content preferences. The study
discovered that overall newspaper readership was positively related to students' focus on
entertainment, job / travel information, and public affairs. However, the students' preference for
reading as a leisure-time activity was related only to a public affairs focus. Content preferences
for newspapers and other print media were related. The researchers found no significant
differences in readership among various academic majors, or by gender, though there was a
slight correlation between age and the public affairs readership index, with older readers more
interested in news about public affairs.
Methodology
Sample
Participants in this study (N=267) were students enrolled in 100- and 200-level English courses at
a Midwestern public university. Courses that comprise the framework for this sample were
selected because they could fulfill basic studies requirements for all majors. A basic studies
course is one that is listed within the core curriculum required for all students. The researcher
obtained permission from seven professors to distribute questionnaires in the eight classes during
regularly scheduled class periods. The students' participation was voluntary; two students
declined. The goal of this sampling procedure was to reach a cross-section of students
representing various fields of study. In all, 53 majors were represented.
Of the 267 students who participated in the study, 65 (24.3 percent) were male and 177 (66.3
percent) were female. A total of 25 participants chose not to divulge their genders. Ages ranged
from 17 to 56, with a mean age of 23.6 years. This mean does not include the 32 respondents
who declined to give their ages. A total of 157 participants (58.8 percent) said they were of the
Caucasian race, 59 (22.1 percent) African American, 10 (3.8 percent) Asian, five (1.9 percent)
African/Native American, two (.8 percent) Hispanic, two (.8 percent) Native American, and one (.4
percent) Arabic. Most (214) of the students were enrolled full time, whereas a few (28) were part-
time students. The class rank breakdown was: freshmen, 45 (16.9 percent); sophomores, 15 (5.6
percent); juniors, 33 (12.4 percent); seniors, 133 (49.8 percent); and graduate students, 16 (6
percent).
Procedure
After two pre-tests and revisions, questionnaires were distributed and collected by the
investigator. In each of the eight classes, the researcher introduced herself to the students as a
journalism professor who was conducting a study on students' use of newspapers and other
media. Each questionnaire included a cover letter with the researcher's name, address, and
phone number. The researcher provided pencils and was available to answer questions if anyone
needed further assistance. The average time spent on the questionnaires was 20 minutes, with
some individual students taking as long as an hour. Approximately six students asked to take the
questionnaires home to finish. They returned the questionnaires to the researcher's mailbox
within a couple of day.