TP&I 1

Kriteria dan karakteristik

Sensor

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Fitur sensor yang diinginkan adalah:
1. Rentang / rentangan
2. Kesalahan dan akurasi
3. Nonliearitas
4. Histeresis
5. Band mati dan Saturasi
6. Impedansi keluaran
7. Pengulangan
8. Keandalan
9. Sensitvitas
10. Resolusi
11. Respon Frekuensi
12. Waktu merespon
13. kalibrasi

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Range and Span
Range: nilai stimulus terendah dan tertinggi
Span: perbedaan aritmatika antara nilai
tertinggi dan terendah dari input
yang dirasakan.
Input full scale (IFS) = span
Output full scale (OFS): perbedaan antara
rentang atas dan bawah dari output
sensor.
Rentang dinamis: rasio antara batas atas dan
bawah dan biasanya dinyatakan
dalam db
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Range and Span (Contoh)

Sebua sensor dirancang pada:  oC ke
80 C dengan output 2.5V ke 1.2V.
Range:  C and +80 C
Span: 80 (30)=110 C
Input full scale = 110 C
Output full scale = 2.5V -1.2V =1.3V

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TP&I 5

Output
Measurement

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Pengukuran temperature dengan
termokopel-mikrokontroler

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Pengontrolan temperature dengan
termokopel-mikrokontroler-PID

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Simulasi Mikrokontroler
pada Proteus

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Errors and Accuracy
• Errors: is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the quantity being
measured
error= measured value –true value
• As a percentage of full scale (span for
example) error is calculated as;
e = t/(tmax-tmin)*100 where tmax and tmin are the
maximum and minimum values the device is
designed to operate at.

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Errors and Accuracy Example:
• Accuracy: adalah sejauh mana nilai yang
diukur mungkin salah dan biasanya
dinyatakan dalam persentase
• Example: A thermistor is used to measure
temperature between –30 and +80 C and produce
an output voltage between 2.8V and 1.5V.
Because of errors, the accuracy in sensing is
±0.5C. so the measured value may be high than
or lower than by 0.5 C
• a. Dalam hal input sebagai±0.5C
• b. Persentase masukan: error = 0.5/(80+30)*100 = 0.454%
• c. Dalam hal output. Dari fungsi transfer:
error = ±0.059V.
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TP&I Hysteresis 11

• Hysteresis is the deviation of

the sensor’s output at any
given point when approached
from two different directions
• Caused by electrical or
mechanical systems
– Magnetization
– Thermal properties
– Loose linkages
• If temperature is measured, at a rated
temperature of 50C, the output might be 4.95V
when temperature increases but 5.05V when
temperature decreases.
• This is an error of ±0.5% (for an output full
scale of 10V in this idealized example).
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TP&I Nonlinearity 12

• Nonlinearity is defined as the

maximum deviation from the ideal
linear transfer function.
• Nonlinearity must be deduced
from the actual transfer function
or from the calibration curve
• A few methods to do so:
• a. by use of the range of the
sensor
– Pass a straight line between
the range points (line 1)
• b. use a linear best fit (least
squares) through the points of the
curve (line 2)
• c. use the tangent to the curve at some point on the curve
Take a point in the middle of the range of interest
-Draw the tangent and extend to the range of the curve (line 3)
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Deadband
• Deadband: the lack of response or
insensitivity of a device over a specific range
of the input.
• In this range which may be small, the output
remains constant.
• A device should not operate in this range
unless this insensitivity is acceptable.

Dead Zone

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TP&I Output impedance 14

Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage

and short circuit current of the port (i.e. current
when the output is shorted)
output impedance is important for interfacing
Example: 500  sensor (output impedance)
connected to a processor
– b. Processor input impedance is infinite
– c. Processor input impedance is 500 

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Repeatability
• Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor to
represent the same value under identical
conditions when measured at different times.
– usually associated with calibration
– given as percentage of input full scale of the
maximum difference between two readings
taken at different times under identical input
conditions.

max min.valuesgiven
Re peatability  100
full range
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Reliability

• Reliability: a statistical measure of

quality of a device which indicates the
ability of the device to perform its stated
function, under normal operating
conditions without failure for a stated
period of time or number of cycles.
• Given in hours, years or in MTBF
• Usually provided by the manufacturer
• Based on accelerated lifetime testing

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TP&I
Sensitivity 17

• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the

change in output for a given change in
input, usually a unit change in input.
Sensitivity represents the slope of the
transfer function.
• Also is used to indicate sensitivity to other
environment that is not measured.
• Example: sensitivity of resistance
measurement to temperature change
d aT+ b = 1  dR = a 
dR dT C

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Resolution
• Resolution: the minimum increment in
stimulus to which the sensor can respond. It
is the magnitude of the input change which
results in the smallest observable output.
• Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of
0.1V is used to measure the output of a
sensor. The change in input (temperature,
pressure, etc.) that will provide a change of
0.1V on the voltmeter is the resolution of the
sensor/voltmeter system.
• In digital systems generally, resolution may
be specified as 1/ 2N (N is the number of bit.)

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Frequency response
• Frequency response: The ability of the device to
respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal) input
• A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.)
as a function of frequency
• Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the
device is usable (sensors and actuators)
• Provides important design parameters
• Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of
plots is the Bode diagram of the device)

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Frequency response (cont)

• Important design parameters

– Bandwidth (B-A, in Hz)
– Flat frequency range (D-C in Hz)
– Cutoff frequencies (points A and B in Hz)
– Resonant frequencies
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Frequency response (example.)

• Bandwidth: 16.5kHz-70Hz=16.43 kHz
• Flat frequency range: 10kHz-120Hz=9880 Hz
• Cutoff frequencies: 70 Hz and 16.5 kHz
• Resonance: 12 kHz

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TP&I 22

Response time
• Response time: indicates the time needed for
the output to reach steady state for a step
change in input.
• Typically the response time will be given as the
time needed to reach 90% of steady state output
upon exposure to a unit step change in input.
• The response time of the device is due to the
inertia of the device (both “mechanical” and
“electrical”).
• Fast response time is usually desirable
• Slow response times tend to average readings

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Response Time

y(t)
p
Mp
1
td ±10%
0.5

0
t
tr ts
s

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TP&I
Calibration 24

• Calibration: the experimental determination of

the transfer function of a sensor or actuator.
• Typically, needed when the transfer function
is not known or,
• When the device must be operated at
tolerances below those specified by the
manufacturer.
• Example, use a thermistor with a 5%
tolerance on a full scale from 0 to 100C to
measure temperature with accuracy of, say,
±0.5C.
• The only way this can be done is by first
establishing the transfer function of the
sensor.

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TP&I 25
Calibration (cont.)
• Two methods:
• Method1. known transfer function:
– Determine the slope and crossing point (line
function) from two known stimuli (say two
temperatures) if the transfer function is linear
– Measure the output
– Calculate the slope and crossing point in V=aT+b
– If the function is more complex, need more points:
V = aT + bT2 + cT3 + d
– 4 measurements to calculate a,b,c,d
– Must choose points effectively - if linear, use
points close to the range. If not, use equally
spaced points or points around the locations of
highest curvature
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Calibration
(con..)

Determine the output equation ?

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Calibration (cont.)

• Method 2:
• b. Unknown transfer function:
– Measure the output Ri at as many input values Ti as is
practical
– Use the entire span
– Calculate a best linear fit (least squares for example)
– If the curve is not linear use a polynomial fit
– May use piecewise linear segments if the number of points is
large.

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Calibration (cont.)

• Calibration is sometimes an operational

requirement (thermocouples, pressure
sensors)
• Calibration data is usually supplied by the
manufacturer
• Calibration procedures must be included with
the design documents
• Errors due to calibration must be evaluated
and specified

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A collection of Sensors

GPS
Linear Encoder Gas
Camera

Gyroscope
Lever Switch

Sonar Ranging

Accelerometer
Piezo Bend Laser Rangefinder
PIR

Rotary
Encoder
Resistive Bend
Pressure
Pyroelectric
Detector
UV Detector
Pendulum Resistive
Metal Detector Tilt

IR Modulator
Receiver
Magnetometer Microphone

Radiation Magnetic Reed Switch

Compass
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Infrared Ranging CDS Cell
TP&I
Hall Effect Sensors 30

Hall Effect Sensor Sensing a Shaft Speed

• Dikembangkan oleh
Edwin Hall pada
tahun 1879; dan
karenanya disebut
efek Hall nama

• Dihunakan sebagai
sensor non-kontak
untuk mendeteksi
Sensor efek hall digunakan untuk
dan mengukur aplikasi penginderaan jarak,
medan magnet pemosisian, deteksi kecepatan, dan
penginderaan arus
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 TP&I
Cara Kerja 31

• Kehadiran medan magnet

Prinsip penggambaran Hall Effect
mengarahkan elektron yang
mengalir melalui bahan konduktif
• Saat elektron berpindah ke salah
satu ujung bahan konduktif, maka:
 Potensi dikembangkan dalam
arah tegak lurus terhadap aliran
arus.
 Potensi menunjukkan kekuatan
medan magnet.

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TP&I 32
Applications
• IC Engine Electronic Ignition Systems
– Used to determine position of cam shaft
• Brushless DC Motor Control
– Sensors determine position of permanent magnet
rotor
• Assembly Lines
– To determine shaft position and velocity
– As contactless limit switches
• Current Sensing ICs
– Electrically isolated alternative to shunt resistors

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TP&I 33

Hall devices can be used

as proximity switches

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TP&I
Jenis Sensor Hall Effect 34

• Linear Hall Effect Sensors

– Output is proportional to magnetic field
strength
• Hall Effect Digital Switches
– Presence of magnetic field above threshold
turns switch on
– Presence of magnetic field below threshold
turns switch off
• Hall Effect Digital Latches
– North field turns latch on
– South field turns latch off
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TP&I 35
Packaging and Manufacturers
• ICs
– Analog Devices:
• AD22151G from Analog Devices
SOT23
– Allegro MicroSystems, Inc.
• Wide range of linear, latching and SIP
switching sensors http://www.allegromicro.com/en/Products/P
art_Numbers/1120/pinout.gif
• Great sampling policy
– Many, many more
• Packaged units
– Honeywell
– Many, many more Hall Effect
Sensor Module
http://sensing.honeywell.com/client_asset/do
cument/1/5/4/0/3/5/document_C3697B35-
C930-CB7C-FE090DFFCE61FB22.jpg

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TP&I 36
Implementation and Words of Warning
• Sensors may be affected by temperature
variation.
– Some sensors incorporate circuitry to reduce this error.
• Sensors may be directional:
– Care must be taken with respect to orientations of
sensor and magnet
• Some Hall Effect sensors detect presence
of ferromagnetic materials, not magnetic
fields

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TP&I Teori Efek Hall 37

no magnetic field

Ketika medan magnet tegak lurus ada, seperti yang ditunjukkan

pada Gambar diatas, gaya Lorentz diberikan saat ini. Gaya ini
mengganggu distribusi arus, menghasilkan perbedaan potensial
(tegangan) di seluruh keluaran. Tegangan ini adalah tegangan
Hall (VH).

VH  I  B

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magnetic field present

Hall element orientation

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Hall effect measurement setup for electrons

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Basic Hall effect sensor

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TP&I 41
Variable Reluctance Sensors
• Digunakan untuk mengukur kecepatan dan / atau
posisi benda logam yang bergerak
• Membutuhkan sirkuit pengkondisian sinyal untuk
menghasilkan sinyal yang berguna (Contoh: M1815)

Industrial Variable
Reluctance Sensor

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TP&I 42
Bagaimana Sensor Reluktansi Variabel Bekerja
• Magnet pada sensor menciptakan medan magnet
• Saat benda besi bergerak dengan sensor
 Perubahan yang dihasilkan dalam fluks magnet
menginduksi ggl
Typical Configuration

Variable Reluctance Sensor

Construction

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Typical Application
• Shaft velocity sensor for ABS/traction control
• Crank and cam shaft position sensors

Installed on CV axle
Sensor Schematic

http://www.me.gatech.edu/mechatronics_lab/Projects/Spring07/Group1/dorthy
6.JPG

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TP&I 44
Interfacing Concerns

• Emf is proportional to rate of change of

magnetic flux.
– Ferrous material must be moving for sensor to
generate signal.
• Output voltage is dependent on velocity of
toothed wheel
– Performance may be reduced at slow speeds

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TP&I Ultrasonic Transducer 45
(Sonic Distance Sensors)
• Ultrasonic transducer (piezoelectric transducer) adalah
perangkat yang mengubah energi listrik menjadi
ultrasound
• Setelah menerima gema suara (pressure wave) kembali
dari permukaan, ultrasound transducer akan mengubah
gelombang suara menjadi energi listrik yang dapat
diukur dan ditampilkan
• Ultrasound adalah gelombang suara di atas kisaran
normal pendengaran manusia (lebih dari 20K hertz).

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TP&I 46
 Karena kristal piezoelektrik menghasilkan tegangan ketika
gaya diterapkan padanya, kristal yang sama dapat
digunakan sebagai generator dan detektor ultrasonik.
 Beberapa sistem menggunakan pemancar dan komponen
penerima terpisah sementara yang lain menggabungkan
keduanya dalam transceiver piezoelektrik tunggal
 Metode alternatif untuk membuat dan mendeteksi
ultrasound termasuk magnetostriksi dan aktuasi kapasitif.
Pulse echo
sensor

Transmit-Receive
sensor

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TP&I 47
• Suara ditransmisikan melalui propagasi (menyebarkan)
tekanan di udara
• Kecepatan suara di udara biasanya 331 m / detik pada
0oC dan 343 m / detik pada 20oC untuk udara kering
• Prosesor sinyal digital yang ditanamkan pada sensor
menghitung jarak antara sensor dan objek

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 X = vsound . t
dimana:
Vsound diketahui
t = 0.5 (time of flight)
X adalah jarak antara sensor dan objeck
 Jarak sensor bervariasi antara 5 cm hingga 20 m
 Sensor tidak sesuai untuk pengukuran jarak
sangat pendek
 Respons frekuensi (tingkat pembaruan
pengukuran jarak) bervariasi dengan jarak yang
diukur
- Secara umum 100 Hz
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TP&I 49

• Piezoelectric crystals have property of changing

size when voltage is applied
• Applying alternating current (AC) across them
causes them to oscillate at very high frequencies
– Producing very high frequency sound waves
• Ultrasonic sensors work on principle similar to
radar or sonar
–Radar and Sonar evaluate attributes of target
•Interpreting echoes from radio or sound waves
respectively

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Applications
Medical:
 Medical ultrasonic transducers (probes):
 Come in variety of different shapes and sizes for
use in making pictures of different parts of body
 Transducer may be:
 Passed over surface of body or
 Inserted into body opening such as rectum or
woman’s reproductive organ
 Clinicians who perform ultrasound-guided procedures
often use probe positioning system to hold the
ultrasonic transducer.

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TP&I 51
 Technology can be used for measuring:
– wind speed and direction (anemometer),
– speed through air or water
– fullness of tank
– amount of liquid in tank
• sensor measures distance to surface of fluid.
• Other applications include:
– in robots for obstacle avoidance
– burglar alarms
– non-destructive testing, and etc

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TP&I 52

Transit time (ultrasonic) flow meter.

Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter

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 TP&I 53
Laser Ultrasound System
• Nd:YAG pulsed laser:
 Repetition rate: 20 Hz
 Pulse Width: 10 ns
 Pulse Energy: 45-450 mJ/pulse Control
Box
 Beam Diameter: 6 mm Nd:YAG
 Positioning Stage: Laser
 Resolution: 50 μm
 Electro-Magnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT):
 Bandwidth: 200 kHz-2.5 MHz
 Data Acquisition Card: EMAT and
 Resolution: 14 bit Positioning Preamp
 Sampling Rate: 125 MHz Data Acquisition
Axis-lead screw
and User Interface

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 TP&I Automated Weld Inspection System 54

 System consists of laser, beam delivery subsystem, stepper motor driven

linear screw, electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT), data
acquisition card, computer software, and control unit
 Generated ultrasounds traveling through weld seams are received by
EMAT
 System resolution not yet determined, but has been used to detect 0.4
mm void
 Used system to inspect 180 mm long weld bead at 1 mm increment in 26
secs Lens Mirror 3
Mirror 2 Beam Delivery
 Type of defects: Lack of penetration; Blow hole; and Short leg
Sample

Incident Laser Beam

Mirror 1 EMAT

Preamp Laser Linear Screw EMAT

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TP&I 55

Assignment

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