ISSN 19907931, Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2010, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 279–285. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2010.

COMBUSTION, EXPLOSION,
AND SHOCK WAVES

Magnetic Field Influence on Coflow Laminar Diffusion Flames1

P. Gillona, J. N. Blancharda, b, and V. Gilarda, b
a
ICAREST2ICNRS, 1C avenue de la Recherche Scientifique, 45071 Orléans Cedex 2, France
b
IUT, Université d'Orléans France
email: gillon@cnrsorleans.fr
Received December 19, 2008

Abstract—The behavior of a laminar methane air flame with a central methane jet and a surrounding air cof
low is analyzed in a large range of fuel and air flow rates. Different regimes of flame stability are described
from an anchored flame to a stable lifted flame which is destabilized before extinction. Influence of an upward
increasing magnetic field generated by an electromagnet is then studied. Experimental measurements at dif
ferent values of methane and air flow rates show that the flame liftoff height is decreased by the magnetic
gradient. These effects are attributed to the magnetic force which develops on air via its action on the para
magnetic oxygen molecules. The magnetic force interacts with the air jet structures upstream of the flame and
then influences the flame stability.
DOI: 10.1134/S1990793110020144

INTRODUCTION (massic magnetic susceptibility m3 kg–1) of the ith

Efficiency of a combustion system strongly
depends on the injecting device in its ability to realize
a uniform mixture. In the present paper, we focus on
the flow field upstream of a laminar lifted flame from
non premixed methane and air jets. From the two ini
tially separated streams of fuel and oxidizer, the level
of homogeneity of the reactants mixing determines the
flame position at a specific distance of the injector out
let and the flame stability. The lifted methane/air
flame is produced at the exit of a coaxial burner: the
internal methane jet is surrounded by an annular air
jet; the coaxial jets issuing in a quiescent air. Coaxial
jet flows are characterized by a spacial variation of
density: the density ratio between air and methane is
1.8. Strong velocity gradients develop between the two
jets and between the air jet and external quiescent air.
In these transverse gradients of both velocity and den
sity originate aerodynamic instabilities. Coherent
structures have been observed in the shear layers at the
jets interfaces (Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities). The
mixing is largely due to the shear layers destabilizing
the two jets.
When a non uniform magnetic field is applied to a
medium, a magnetic force develops due to the mag
netic properties—paramagnetic or diamagnetic—of
the medium. The magnetic force per unit volume Fi
generated by a non uniform magnetic field on species
i, is given by Eq. (1):
Fi = (1/2μ0)ρYiχi∇(B2).
The magnetic force is proportional to the mass
density ρ (kg m–3) and the magnetic susceptibility χi
1 gated. It is shown that magnetically induced convec
The article is published in the original.
chemical species of mass fraction Yi and to the gradi
ent of the square magnetic flux density (∇B2, T 2 m–1).
The magnetic susceptibility χ, ratio of the magnetiza
tion to the magnetic field strength, is positive and
depends on temperature for a paramagnetic substance
whereas it is negative, with no dependence on temper
ature for diamagnetics.
In diffusion flames, hydrocarbon fuels, nitrogen,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide are diamagnetic;
oxygen is the principal paramagnetic gas. As the oxy
gen paramagnetic susceptibility is orders of magnitude
larger, the diamagnetic behavior is considered as neg
ligible.
Many papers referred to the magnetic influence on
combustion. Recently, Wakayama [1] investigated
methane diffusion flames within magnetic field gradi
ents. It was observed that a decreasing magnetic field
along the flame caused its shape more elongated and
slender while an increasing magnetic field produced
shorter and thicker flames. These effects were attrib
uted to the oxygen strong paramagnetic property and
the diamagnetic property of the combustion products.
The influence of magnetic gradients on partially pre
mixed and diffusion flames in air are presented by
Wakayama [2]. It was found that decreasing magnetic
fields increased the combustion rate for diffusion
flames while the magnetic fields had little effect on the
premixed flame. No effect was observed in uniform
(1) magnetic field. It is concluded that the dominant mag
netic action is on the oxygen flow in increasing mag
netic fields. In [3] the magnetic support of combustion
using butane diffusion flame in microgravity is investi

279
280 GILLON et al.
tion driven by the magnetic force on air sustains the
combustion in microgravity.
Yamada et al. [4] investigated numerically the
action of magnetic field on OH radical distribution in
a H2/O2 diffusion flame. It was observed that the mag
netic gradient induced changes in the repartition of
OH density in the flame. The effect related to the mag
netic force on oxygen is more efficient because the
mass density of O2 and then the magnetic susceptibil
ity is much larger in the peripheral region of the flame.
Yamada et al. [5] completed their first study by exper
iments. Using a coaxial type burner set between pole
pieces of a permanent magnet, they measured the dis
tribution of the OH radical by a PLIF method. The
radial migration of the OH towards the central axis of
the flame by the magnetic field predicted numerically
was obtained in experiments. Numerical simulations
made by solving the equations of gas dynamics and
magnetism showed that the magnetic effect is essen
tially due to the magnetic force acting on O2 and not
directly on OH itself.
Baker et al. [6] studied the characteristics of slotted
laminar jet diffusion flames in an upward decreasing
magnetic field using an assembly of prisms in perma
nent magnets. The magnetic field is found to decrease
the flame height, prevent the flames from attaching to
the prisms, increase the intensity of the flame, reduce
the flow rate limit at which soot inception is visible and
decrease the flow rate limit for extinction. They pro
vide a general relationship between the experimental
data and dimensionless parameters.
Khaldi [7] studied experimentally and numerically
the behavior of a small propane diffusion flame in
ambient air submitted to strong vertical magnetic gra
dients. Both increasing and decreasing magnetic fields
were investigated. It is shown that the flame adopts a
behavior strongly related to the thermoconvection
induced in air in the vicinity of the flame. The para
metric analysis taking into account the combination of
gravity and magnetic buoyancy confirms the experi
mental data. The thermomagnetic convection phe
nomena due the O2 magnetic susceptibility depen
dence on temperature are detailed in [8].
Stability of jet diffusion flames is largely referred in
literature. When the fuel mass flow rate exceeds a crit
ical value, the base of the diffusion flame quits the
burner tip and remains suspended above at a certain
distance of the burner. The phenomenon is known as
liftoff. When the mass flow rate increases further, the
liftoff height increases until the flame becomes flat
and then blows out. Extensive experimental and
numerical studies have been carried out to define the
characteristics of the liftoff phenomenon of round
laminar diffusion flames. A lifted flame is stabilized
through the triple flame mechanism. A triple flame is
a flame structure that has been observed in partially
premixed regimes. Just upstream the flame, premixing
occurs and the flame front is formed of two branches,
a fuel rich branch develops in the direction of the fuel
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B
stream and a fuel lean branch on the air side. Behind
these two branches, hot fuel and oxidizer burn in a
trailing diffusion flame along a stoichiometric surface
forming the third part of the triple flame. The flame is
said to be stabilized where the flame propagation
speed with respect to the fuel/oxidizer matches the
local flow velocity on the stoichiometric line. Phillips
[9] made the first observation of a triple flame. Focus
ing on an axisymetric configuration, Plessing and co
workers [10] presented an experimental and numerical
analysis of a laminar triple flame. Their work is partic
ularly documented in results and measurements but
limited to low liftoff heights. Chung and Lee [11]
investigated experimentally and analytically the struc
ture and propagation of laminar lifted flames formed
by axisymmetric burner. Ghosal et Vervisch [12] revis
iting the Chung’s analysis, proposed a detailed theory
of the lift phenomenon. They also reported on hyster
esis where liftoff and reattachment do not happen at
the same value of the fuel mass flow rate and time
dependent instabilities occur near the critical condi
tions.
In this paper, the liftoff of a diffusion flame pro
duced by two coaxial jets of methane and air in the
presence of an upward increasing magnetic field is
studied experimentally and results are compared to the
same cases without magnetic field. By perturbing the
air flow by the magnetic force, we aim at destabilizing
the air mixing layers in order to modify the mecha
nisms involved in the mixing of the reactants upstream
of the flame. We will then be able to predict the possi
bilities offered by a magnetic field to stabilize or desta
bilize a lifted flame.
EXPERIMENTS
A schematic representation of the burner with a
picture of the experimental setup is shown Fig. 1. The
burner consists of a 4 mm inner diameter fuel sur
rounded by a concentric 10 mm inner diameter coflow
tube. Methane is delivered through the fuel jet while
air passes through the coflow tube. Methane and air
flow rates are regulated by using volumetric flow
meters.
In the experiments, an electromagnet is used to
generate a horizontal magnetic field. The magnetic
field induction was measured along the vertical zaxis
position using a gaussmeter with a transverse probe.
The magnetic induction (normalized with the max
value of 1.4 T) and the product of the field gradient to
the field (normalized with the max value of 14 T2/m)
distributions along the zaxis are shown on Fig. 2. The
magnetic induction is uniform along a cylinder of
100 mm diameter and 76 mm length. Along the verti
cal zaxis whose origin is set at the magnet centre, the
maximum values of BdB/dz are z = +135 mm and z =
–135 mm, it is null for –60 mm < z < +60 mm.
The burner is set in the bore of the electromagnet at
three chosen vertical positions with its exit section at
Vol. 4 No. 2 2010
 MAGNETIC FIELD INFLUENCE ON COFLOW LAMINAR DIFFUSION FLAMES 281

Ambient air

CH4

Air Air

Fig. 1. Schematic of the burner and photograph of the experimental setup.

z, m
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

−1.0 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

−0.1
1
−0.2 2

−0.3 3

−0.4

Fig. 2. Distribution of magnetic field and gradient on vertical axis: 䉫—Bz/Bzmax, 䊏— Bz(dBz/dz)/Bz(dBz/dz)max.

z = –85, –135 and –185 mm as mentioned by arrows or air are also given in Table 2. The flow rate velocities
on Fig. 2. At those negative zpositions, the magnetic are: 0 < Uair < 4.5 m/s for the air and 1.5 m/s < U CH4 <
force on air is positive i.e. directed upwards. The 5.6 m/s for the methane. Hence, Reynolds number
burner axis is aligned with the zaxis of the magnet. Re(air) = Uaird/νair ranges from 0 to 2264 and
The gas flows and the flame will encountered a positive
magnetic gradient corresponding to an upward mag
netic force on oxygen. Table 1 contains the magnetic
Table 1. Magnetic induction and magnetic gradient for the
induction and the magnetic gradient for each position three positions of the burner
of the coaxial injector. Experiments are carried out in
ambient air at atmospheric pressure. Experimental Burner exit Magnetic
conditions are given in Table 2 in terms of mean exit BdB/dz, T2/m
position, mm induction, T
velocities and equivalence ratios. Conditions used in
the experiments are ranging from lightly lean to very z1 = –85 1.4 2.2
rich fuel mixtures. The dynamic Reynolds numbers z2 = –135 1.14 14
Re = Ud/ν defined with the mean exit velocity U, the
kinematic viscosity ν and the diameter d of the jet of fuel z3 = –185 0.35 2.6

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B Vol. 4 No. 2 2010

282 GILLON et al.

Table 2. Inlet gazes conditions and related Reynolds numbers and equivalence ratios
Mean inlet velocity, m/s Re Volume flow rate, m3/s Equivalence
CH4 Air coflow CH4 Air coflow CH4 Air coflow ratio

1.59 0.5 368 252 4.75

7 × 10–5 2.26 × 10–4
5.57 4.5 1289 2264 2.85

Re(CH4) = U CH4 d/ν CH4 ranges from 368 to 1289; the
two flow fields are always laminar.
The methane flow rate is kept constant and for
increasing values of the air flow rate, side views of the
flame are recorded by a numerical camera fixed in the
transverse direction. The visible flame position and
length are measured by image analysis.
Laser tomography of the flow field has been
obtained by laser illumination of a crosssection of the
flow seeded by solid particles and recorded by a CCD
camera. A Nd Yag Continum LASER (25 mJ, 10 Hz,
532 nm) and a TSI Pivcam 10–30 camera have been
used. The air flow is seeded with incense particles
which are non magnetic. Incense particles most prob
ably influence the composition of the air flow and then
the combustion phenomena but they do not modify
the air flow structure ahead of the flame. So the use of
incense particles to seed the air flow allows us to deter
mine the air flow structure. Burning of the incense
particles at the flame front allowed us to visualize the
base of the flame.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
On Fig. 3 are reported the liftoff height measure
ments at increasing values of the air exit velocity for a
fixed mean methane velocity of 5.6 m/s without mag
netic field.
The liftoff height is taken to be the distance from
the burner rim to the visible base of the flame.
Reported values result of averaged liftoff height from
measurements of 20 images. It is observed that the
flame behavior is depending essentially on the coflow
velocity. At U CH4 = 5.6 m/s, the flame is stabilized very
close to the burner rim for Uair < 0.5 m/s and is lifted
for Uair > 0.5 m/s. The attached flame regime is
denominated regime I. When the flame is lifted, two
other regimes can be identified: the regime II corre
sponds to a smooth flame base typical of a triple flame;
the liftoff height increases linearly with the coflow
exit velocity. The regime III appears at air velocities
>1.3 m/s, the tribrachial shape of the lifted flame
evolves into a noisy flame with an instable front, quasi
planar with spatial and temporal oscillations. In this
third regime, the liftoff height is found to slowly
increase with Uair. For further increase in air velocity,
for 4 m/s < Uair < 4.5 m/s the flame is suddenly pushed
up and then blown out. Views of the flame in the 3
zones are shown on Fig. 4.
When the methane exit velocity is smaller than
1.5 m/s, only the attached flame and the stable lifted
flame behaviors are observed. The third regime of
instability of the lifted front flame is superposed to the

L, mm
100
90 Blowout
Air mean exit velocity, m/s
80 I II III I II III
70 0 0.53 0.74 0.95 1.16 1.31 1.47 1.53
60
50
40
30
20
10

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Uair, m/s

Fig. 3. Variation of the flame lift height L versus the air exit
mean velocity for the burner set at z1 = –85 mm; 䊐—
without magnetic field; U CH4 = 5.6 m/s.
Fig. 4. Flame views without magnet. Methane mean exit
velocity 1.75 m/s at different air—mean exit velocity:
I—attached, II—stable lifted, III—unstable lifted.

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B Vol. 4 No. 2 2010

 MAGNETIC FIELD INFLUENCE ON COFLOW LAMINAR DIFFUSION FLAMES 283

L, mm (а) L, mm (а)
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
(b) (b)
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Uair, m/s Uair, m/s

Fig. 5. Variation of the flame lift height L versus the air exit Fig. 6. Variation of the flame lift height L versus the air
mean velocity for the burner set at z1 = –85 mm: exit mean velocity for the burner set at z2 = –135 mm:
(a) U CH4 = 1.6 m/s, (b) U CH4 = 5.6 m/s; 䊐—without (a) U CH4 = 1.6 m/s, (b) U CH4 = 5.6 m/s; 䊐—without
magnetic field, 䉱—magnetic field. magnetic field, 䉱—with magnetic field.

appearance of the flame blow out. Variations of the
flame liftoff height versus the air exit mean velocity
are reported on Figs. 5–7 at the three burner vertical
positions with and without the application of the mag
netic field.
On Fig. 5, comparison of behaviors with and with
out magnetic field at z1 = –85 mm and fixed methane
exit velocities of 1.6 and 5.6 m/s shows that the mag
netic field induces a small decrease of the liftoff
height. At z1, the magnetic gradient is very small and
decreases to zero 15 mm above the burner exit. Most of
the gas flow field and the flame, when lifted, are in the
homogeneous region of the magnetic field where the
magnetic force on air is null.
The effect of the magnetic gradient is evidenced on
Figs. 6 and 7 where the variation of the liftoff height
is reported at z2 and z3 respectively for two methane
exit velocities: U CH4 = 1.6 and 5.6 m/s. The applica
tion of the magnetic field reduces the liftoff height.
The reduction depends on the air flow velocity; the
decrease in the liftoff height is only sensitive for
Uair > 1 m/s. In the z2 position, the burner rim is set in
front of the maximum of magnetic force on oxygen;
the magnetic force then decreases along the gas flow to
be null 75 mm above. In the z3 position, the magnetic
force, always directed upwards, increases in the first
50 mm and then decreases. The reduction of the lift
off is more pronounced for the z3 position which cor
responds to a longer action of the magnetic force than
for the z2 position. To investigate the mechanisms
involved in the stabilization of the flame through the
reduction of the liftoff by the magnetic gradient, we
needed to visualize the jet structures upstream of the
flame. The changes are expected to be due to air mix
ing layers modifications since the magnetic force is
acting only on the air flow. Vertical tomography images
recorded from the burner rim to the flame base with
the air coflow only seeded are reported Fig. 8. Condi
tions are the following: U CH4 = 0.8 and 1.6 m/s and
Uair = 0.7 and 1.6 m/s and the burner is set at the z2
position. As the incense particles are burning in the
flame, the tomography images givenot only a descrip
tion of the air flow but are also indicative of the flame
front and its spatial stability. The disappearance of the
light emitted by the incense particles corresponds to
the place where the chemical reaction occurs between
air and methane. The fact that the incense particles are
burning in the flame could modify the flame behavior
that is why the liftoff height measurements have been
made without the air seeding. In the regime II of stable
liftoff, at low Uair (Fig. 8a) without and (Fig. 8b) with
the magnetic field it is shown that the air flow is lami
nar without any local perturbations. At the flame front
the air flow divides in two branches showing a horse

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B Vol. 4 No. 2 2010

284 GILLON et al.

L, mm (а) (a) (b)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
(b)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Uair, m/s

Fig. 7. Variation of the flame lift height L versus the air

exit mean velocity for the burner set at z3 = –185 mm:
(a) U CH4 = 1.6 m/s, (b) U CH4 = 5.6 m/s; 䊐—without
magnetic field, 䉱—with magnetic field.

shoe shape. It leads to a smooth flame with a tubular

base characteristic of a triple flame which consists of
an inner rich branch and outside lean branches. The (c) (d)
magnetic effect is simply a reduction of the distance
between the burner rim and the flame front. The air
Fig. 8. Vertical tomography images: (a, b) Uair = 0.7 m/s,
velocity is increased by the magnetic force changing
the stoichiometric line position, the flame front set to U CH4 = 0.8 m/s; (c, d) Uair = 1.6 m/s, U CH4 = 1.6 m/s;
a lower position. (a, c) without magnetic field; (b, d) with magnetic field.

Pictures (c) and (d) in Fig. 8 illustrate the behavior

of the air flow field in the regime III of unstable liftoff
without and with the magnetic field. It is clear that the
instabilities of the flame front is related to instabilities
that develop in the external air mixing layer, between
the air jet and the quiescent external air. The flow field
exhibits vortices due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz insta
bility. The air jet is first straight upward, close to the
burner exit and then perturbed by oscillations which
evolve to vortices. The flame front perturbations are
directly correlated to the vortices in the air jet just
upstream the flame. The interaction between the
flame and jet structures constitutes an important
parameter for the flame behavior. The magnetic field
in increasing the air jet velocity reduces the flame lift
off but also affects the jet structures. Analysis of Without magnet With magnet
tomography images shows that the application of the
magnetic field gradient leads to a reduction of the vor Fig. 9. Images of the unstable flame front in the regime III
tices size in the air jet as could be seen on pictures with and without magnet; U CH4 = 3.95 m/s, Uair = 1.6 m/s.
(Figs. 8c and 8d). As a consequence of the destabilized Princeton Instruments camera 1000 Hz.

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B Vol. 4 No. 2 2010

 MAGNETIC FIELD INFLUENCE ON COFLOW LAMINAR DIFFUSION FLAMES
mixing layer, the flame front is also highly perturbed in
this third regime. On Fig. 9, photographs of the flame
from a high frame rate ICCD camera (Princeton
Instruments) in the unstable regime for U CH4 = 3.65
m/s and Uair = 1.6 m/s show the instability of the flame
front. The flame front is wrinkled with a wavelength of
10 mm which could be correlated with the air–meth
ane mixing layer instability whereas the flame is also
perturbed by an instability of larger wavelength of
about 40 mm which could be correlated to the external
air–air mixing layer instability.
CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of a lifted laminar methane/air diffu
sion flame is analyzed for a large range of methane and
air coflow exit velocities. Changes in the liftoff
induced by the application an increasing magnetic
field are determined experimentally. The magnetic
force which acts upwards on the paramagnetic oxygen
increases the air velocity inducing modifications of the
external air mixing layer. The flame stability being
highly correlated to the jet structures, a perturbation of
the air flow field by the magnetic force leads to a
reduction of the flame liftoff.
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY B
285
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The help provided by V. Lago in the signal and
image processing from the high frequency camera is
gratefully acknowledged.
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