Ms 54

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MS-54 REFERENCE MATERIAL

Q1. Discuss the rational individual models of decision making. What are the implications of these models to
information system analysts?
Rational decision making models involve a cognitive process where each step follows in a logical order from the
one before. By cognitive, I mean it is based on thinking through and weighing up the alternatives to come up with
the best potential result.
There are different types of rational models and the number of steps involved, and even the steps themselves, will
differ in different models. Some people assume that decision making is equivalent to problem solving. Some
decisions however are not problem oriented and I've taken this into consideration when describing the general
outline of a rational model below
Steps in a rational decision making model

• Define the situation/decision to be made
• Identify the important criteria for the process and the result
• Consider all possible solutions
• Calculate the consequences of these solutions versus the likelihood of satisfying the criteria
• Choose the best option
Phases of decision-making process are:

• Intelligence- searching for conditions in the environment that call for decisions
• Design- inventing, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action
• Choice- selecting a course of action from those available
• Implementation- implementing the selected course of action
• Monitoring- checking the consequences of the decision made after implementation
The comparison is often performed by filling out forms or charts that have many names. Decision matrix, Pugh
matrix, decision grid, selection matrix, criteria rating form, amongst others. A relative importance is given to each
criterion and the options are scored against each of the criteria and the highest 'wins'.
Pros and cons

A rational decision making model presupposes that there is one best outcome. Because of this it is sometimes
called an optimizing decision making model. The search for perfection is frequently a factor in actually delaying
making a decision.
Such a model also presupposes that it is possible to consider every option and also to know the future
consequences of each. While many would like to think they know what will happen, the universe often has other
plans!
It is also limited by the cognitive abilities of the person making the decision; how good is their memory? How good
is their imagination? The criteria themselves, of course, will be subjective and may be difficult to compare. These
models require a great deal of time and a great deal of information. And, of course, a rational decision making
model attempts to negate the role of emotions in decision making.
Specific types of rational decision making models
Bounded rational decision making models

A decision maker is said to exhibit bounded rationality when they consider fewer options than are actually
available, or when they choose an option that is not ?the best overall? but is best within the current circumstances.
Eg, someone spills coffee on a shirt in a restaurant, and goes next door and buys a poorly fitting shirt to change into
immediately.
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Obviously it would be optimal to buy a proper fitting shirt. But if the person is in a hurry and cannot wear a wet,
coffee stained shirt, then buying the poorly fitting one is appropriate. This is an example of bounded rationality.
Vroom-Jago decision model

This model originally was created by Vroom and Yetton in 1973 and later modified by Vroom and Jago. Basically
there are five situations for making decisions, from a single individual making the decision, to an individual
making the decision with varying amounts of input from the rest of the group, to the whole group making the
decision.
The Vroom-Jago decision model has a series of seven yes/no questions that elicit the important criteria and indicate
which of the five decision-making processes is the most appropriate
Intuitive decision making models
Some people consider these decisions to be unlikely coincidences, lucky guesses, or some kind of new-age hocus-
pocus. Many universities are still only teaching rational decision making models and suggest that if these are not
used, failure results. Some researchers are even studying the logic behind the intuitive decision making models!
The groups who study intuitive decision making models are realising that it's not simply the opposite of rational
decision making. Carl Jung pointed out that it is outside the realm of reason.
In military schools the rational, analytical models have historically been utilised. It is also long been recognised,
however, that once the enemy is engaged the analytical model may do more harm than good. History is full of
examples where battles have more often been lost by a leader? Failure to make a decision than by his making a poor
one.
A good plan, executed now, is better than a perfect plan next week."
- General George S. Patton, Jr.
The military are educating the soldiers of every rank in how to make intuitive decisions. Information overload, lack
of time and chaotic conditions are poor conditions for rational models. Instead of improving their rational decision
making, the army has turned to intuitive decision models. Why? Because they work!
The ultimate decision making model

The ultimate model will allow you to rapidly assimilate the available information in a situation, bring all the
relevant learning and past experiences to bear and allow you to quickly and easily decide what to do, while knowing
for certain that you're making the right decision.
Recognition primed decision making model

Psychologist Dr Gary Klein has been studying decision making for many years and he suggests that people actually
use an intuitive approach 90% of the time. His recognition primed decision making model describes that in any
situation there are cues or hints that allow people to recognise patterns. Obviously the more experience somebody
has, the more patterns they will be able to recognise. Based on the pattern, the person chooses a particular course of
action. They mentally rehearse it and if they think it will work, they do it.
If they don't think it will work, they choose another, and mentally rehearse that. As soon as they find one that they
think will work, they do it. Again past experience and learning plays a big part here. There is no actual
comparison of choices, but rather a cycling through choices until an appropriate one is found.
Today’s managers depend on information systems for decision making. The managers have handful of data around
them but manually they cannot process the data accurately and with in the short period of time available to them
due to heavy competition in modern world. Therefore mangers depend on information systems.
The concept of MIS:

Management: Management has been defined in a variety of ways, but for our purposes it comprises the process or
activities what managers do in the operation of their organization: Plan, Organize, Initiate and Control operations.
Information:
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Data are facts and figures that are not currently being used in a decision processes and usually take the form of
historical records that are recorded and filed without immediate intent to retrieve for decision making.
Information consists of data that have been retrieved, processed or otherwise used for information or inference
purposes, argument, or as a basis for forecasting or decision making.
System can be described simply as a set of elements joined together for a common objective. A subsystem is part of
a larger system with which we are concerned. All systems are part of larger systems. The objective of an MIS
(Management Information System) is to provide information for decision making on planning, initiating,
organizing, and controlling the operations of the subsystems of the form and to provide a synergetic organization in
the process.
Decision Support System: It is sometimes described as the next evolutionary step after Management Information
Systems (MIS). MIS support decision making in both structured and unstructured problem environments.. It
supports decision making at all levels of the organization .IS (Information Systems) are intended to be woven into
the fabric of the organizations, not standing alone. IS support all aspects of the decision making process.MIS are
made of people, computers, procedures, databases, interactive query facilities and so on. They are intended to be
evolutionary/adaptive and easy for people to use
Methods of Decision Making
Type Of Decision Methods of decision making

Old New
Programmed Repetitive and routine Habit Management information system
standard operating Procedure
Organization structure , policy etc
Non - Programmed Judgement Intuition, Insight Systematic Approach to problem
experience, Training and Learning solving & Decision Making
MIS is a technique for making programmed decisions. If we include the computer and management science as
integral parts or tools of computer-based information systems, the prospects for a revolution in programmed
decision making are very real. Just as a manufacturing process is becoming more and more automated so is the
automation of programmed decisions increasing to support this production and other information needs through out
the organization.
System Design & Decision Making

The purpose of elaborating the concept of decision making in the context of IS was to make you realize the
importance of the fact that, Information system must support the managers for timely and effective decision
making. While designing the information system, output, in terms of suitable reports is essential to analyze,
highlight and bring to attention situations that may require decision making. The top manager looks for value
addition to his/her knowledge of business operation.
Q2. Discuss the critical success factor method for the purpose of information requirement analysis
Requirements analysis in systems engineering and software engineering, encompasses those tasks that go into
determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly
conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.
Requirements analysis is critical to the success of a development project. Requirements must be documented,
actionable, measurable, testable, related to identified business needs or opportunities, and defined to a level of detail
sufficient for system design. Requirements can be architectural, structural, behavioral, functional, and non-
functional.
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The IS requirements-gathering process is a critical first step in the IS development or adoption process. However,
IS requirements are too frequently incomplete, inconsistent, or incorrect. Often, the reasons for this failure have less
to do with technologies than with people and management.
Five CSFs for IS requirements gathering
1. Management commitment to the project

Management commitment to the project was described as the level of importance that upper-level management
placed on the successful completion of the project. In general, management commitment refers to the emotional or
psychological obligation that upper management demonstrates toward the project. It is not surprising that
management commitment was selected as the most important factor when all the factors were considered.
Not only does management commitment drive individuals to perform because they wish to achieve recognition
from their superiors, but management commitment is directly linked to whether adequate financial, human, and
technology resources would be available.
Several things can be done to ensure that a project has adequate management commitment prior to the project’s
launch. One is to require the presence of a champion for the project. A champion is a high-level manager within the
organization who acts as sponsor and leader for the project. The champion should possess enough clout within the
organization to gain necessary resources and exposure for the project to succeed.
Another way to ensure management commitment to a project prior to IS requirements gathering is to have a formal
project proposal process in place. This process should include the feasibility analysis (including economic,
technical, and human resources aspects) and some type of capital budgeting or investment comparison that will
clearly show the financial returns for the project.
For smaller firms, at least a cost/benefit analysis should be performed and the payback period and break-even point
for the IT investment should be estimated and compared to other investment opportunities. The final step of this
process is approval of the proposal by management that will be held accountable for the project’s success or failure.
One last approach to improve management commitment to a project is to clearly communicate the importance of
the project to all the departments, divisions, work groups, etc., by having a kick-off event or information session
sponsored by the manager whose span of control covers all of these areas. This will send the clear message to the
managers, users, and IT personnel involved that the project has the backing of high-level management.
Alternatively, a letter or e-mail communication from the CEO or CIO may achieve the same result if it is specific in
explaining the outcomes to be achieved and the importance of the project
2. Interaction between users and IS personnel

Interaction between users and IS personnel was described as the quantity and quality of
communication and the amount of group activities performed, including feedback from
and to one another during the process. Interaction is distinguished from communication by the inclusion of other
behaviors being performed jointly by the users and IS personnel.
Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this factor is that there is an inverse relationship between the quantity of
interaction between users and IS personnel and the quality of this interaction. Apparently, when more time is
needed for users and IS personnel to interact during a project, it is a symptom of other problems. That is, unusually
greater amounts of
interaction between users and IS personnel have a negative impact on the quality of the
information obtained.
The rationale for this phenomenon is that when there are other “issues” not directly relevant to the IS requirements
being addressed, a greater amount of time is spent communicating or interacting during the requirements-gathering
process. Therefore, increased levels of communication (i.e., more meetings than is normally expected or a higher
number of conference calls or personal visits among team members) may indicate other problems with the project
(a lack of understanding of requirements, politics, etc.)that may impact the success of the project.
To improve the quality of interaction among users and IS personnel during IS requirements gathering,
managers have several alternatives. One is to take advantage of joint application development (JAD) or other group
meeting techniques that use a neutral facilitator to run structured meetings to gather requirements. A good facilitator
should be able to keep the user and IS participants focused on the goal of specifying the IS requirements.
In addition, it has been suggested that assigning IS developers to the functional areas to perform the tasks to be
supported by the new system also improves the quality of interaction between users and IS personnel. By
performing the tasks in a functional area, IS personnel develop a deeper understanding of the business processes
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and gain an appreciation for the functions and features needed in the new system as well as the constraints that may
impact a computer-based system.
3. Goal congruence among IS, users, and management

Defined as the agreement among management, user groups, and the IS department on the purpose of the project and
the deliverables to be produced, goal congruence was rated the third most important factor to successful IS
requirements gathering. This factor is directly affected by the existence and quality of a feasibility study and plan.
The feasibility study should include information regarding the scope of the system and
the goals to be achieved. In general, both explicit and implicit goals are associated with
every project, and to be successful, substantive agreement is needed on these goals.
This factor may also be affected by the interaction among users and IS personnel discussed above. It is expected
that high-quality interaction would lead to a high level of goal congruence. However, goal congruence is clearly a
distinct factor as the interaction may be high quality, but there still may be misunderstanding or conflict among the
stakeholders with regard to the goals of the project.
Another aspect of goal congruence is the difficulty encountered when more than one user
area is involved with the project. Today, almost every information system in an organization impacts more than one
functional area (some touch on every area, e.g., ERP systems). Usually, these different functional groups can have
different, if not competing, requirements for the system. This makes the achievement of goal congruence more
difficult. This is not intended to mean that a system cannot meet multiple goals. However, all of the goals of the
project should be made explicit, public, and as concrete as possible.
Finally, there may exist unseen or hidden goals. These hidden agendas could come from any area, such as
management, IS, or user groups, and could be benign and legitimate or could be intended to sabotage or damage the
project. In general, the best approach to achieve goal congruence is to explicitly recognize and describe the goals
and to restrict the scope of the project to the fewest number of functional areas possible.
4. IS personnel’s understanding of the application
IS personnel’s understanding of the application is defined as how well the information systems personnel
understand the purpose, the tasks, and the outputs of the work processes that the application is to support.
This is typically referred to as domain knowledge. The involvement of IS personnel— who have knowledge
regarding the application domain for which requirements are being defined—greatly increases the ability of the
team to correctly and quickly specify the requirements. Specifically, having IS personnel on the team who have had
prior experience in the domain area (e.g., by developing similar applications or doing support work, or best of all,
performing some of the users’ job functions) allows IS personnel to understand terminology and have a deeper
understanding of the users’ needs.
The IS personnel’s level of domain knowledge would also be expected to positively impact the quality of the
requirements-gathering process. By being familiar with the terms and business processes under study, semantic
confusion should be avoided and communication improved.
However, there also may be negative effects of IS personnel experience and domain knowledge within a specific
area. This may manifest in a form of bias. Bias has been defined as a willingness to change or to try new approaches
or as the resistance to new ideas and change.
This second type of bias may be relevant because an IS developer may have been
involved in earlier projects for the same system and be resistant to new ideas or technology or to doing things in
ways different from before.
5. Planning
The planning factor was described as the amount of preparation performed for the IS
requirements-gathering process and included the identification of specific tasks and the person responsible for
performing them. Studies have shown that a work plan and schedule for completion are necessary for project
success.
Reports of projects where an effort was nominally started without a specific plan or schedule, only to be forgotten
in short order, are not unusual in most organizations. Also, stories abound where a project was begun with planned
work activities and a schedule was laid out but no tasks were assigned to specific individuals, and everyone was
surprised when the first set of milestones occurred and no work had been done.
Q3. Explain the concept of System and its usefulness in MIS.
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Fundamental Information System Concepts

• That Computer networks are systems of information processing components.
• That Business uses of Computer networks are really Inter connected business information systems.
• That developing ways to use computer networks in business includes designing the basic components of
information systems.
• That managing information technology emphasizes the quality, business value, and security of an
organization’s information systems. System is a group of interrelate components working together toward a
common goal by accepting input and producing outputs in an organized transformation process. System has
three basic interacting components or
Functions:
1. Input
2. Processing
3. Output
1. Input: Involves capturing and assembling elements that enter the system to be processed. For ex. Raw
materials, energy, data, and human effort must be secured and organized for processing.
2. Processing involves transformation processes that convert into output. Ex: manufacturing process, the human
breathing process or mathematical calculations.
3. Output involves transferring elements that have been produced by a transformation process to their ultimate
destination. E.g.finished products, human services, and management information must be transmitted to their
human users. The system concept becomes even more useful by including two addition components: feedback
and control. A system with feedback and control components is sometimes called a Cyber ne tic system that is
self monitoring and self regulating system.
Feedback: is data about the performance of a system. Ex. Data about sales performance is feedback to a sales
manager.
Control: involves monitoring and evaluating feedback to determine whether a system is

moving toward the achievement of its goal. The control function then makes necessary adjustments to a system’s
input and processing components to ensure that it produces proper output. A business is an organizational system
where economic resources of (input) are transformed by various organization processes (processing) into goods and
services (output). Information Systems provide information (feedback) on the operations of the system to
management for the direction and maintenance of the system (control), as it exchanges inputs and outputs with its
environment.
Components of Information System

Information system Model that expresses a fundamental conceptual framework for major components and activities
of information systems.
Information System depends on the resources of
1. People (End user and IS specialists)
2. Hardware (Machine and Media)
3. Software (Program and procedures)
4. Data (Data and knowledge base)
5. Network (communication media and Network support) to perform input, processing, output, storage and
control activities that convert data resources into information products
Information system model highlights the relationships among the components and activities of information systems.
It provides a framework that emphasizes four major concepts that can applied to all types of information systems.
There are the five basic resources of information system.

• People resources include end users and are specialists
• Specialist: - System analysis, programmer, computer operators. End user: - any one else who uses information
system.
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• hardware resources consist of machine and media,

• Machines: Computers, Video monitors, magnetic disk drive, printers, output scanners.
• Media: Floppy disk, magnetic tape, optical disks, paper forms, plastic card.
• Software resources include both programs and procedures,
• Programs: operating system, spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, payroll program
Information System Activities

• Input: - Optical scanning of bar-code tags on merchandise.
• Processing: - Calculating employee pay, taxes and other payroll deductions.
• Output: - Producing reports and display about sales performance.
• Storage: -Maintaining records on customers, employees, and products.
• Control: -Generating audible single to indicate proper entry of sales data.
Overview of Information System s

Information system plays three information roles in the business success of an enterprise.
• Support of its business processes and operations.
• Support of decision making by its managers.
• Support of its strategies for competitive advantage
Q4. Discuss the various Kinds of network topologies
Network Topologies
In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices. Network topologies are categorized
into the following basic types:
• bus
• ring
• star
• tree
• mesh
More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.
Bus Topology
Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all
devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into
with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives.
10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for
bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen
computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable
fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.
This diagram illustrates the bus network topology. A bus topology such as 10Base-2 or 10Base-5 Ethernet uses a
single communication backbone for all devices.
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Bus Network Topology

Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes.
All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in
any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are
found in some office buildings or school campuses.
This diagram illustrates the ring network topology. A ring topology such as FDDI or SONET sends messages
clockwise or counterclockwise through the shared link
Ring Network Topology

Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that
may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable
will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire
network also fails.)
This diagram illustrates the star network topology. A star topology typically uses a network hub or switch and is
common in home networks.
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Star Network Topology
Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form,
only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of
a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus
(limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub
connection points) alone.
This diagram illustrates the tree network topology. A tree topology integrates the star and bus topologies in a hybrid
approach to improve network scalability.
Tree Network Topology
Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh
network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two
cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh
routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration
below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.
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This diagram illustrates the mesh network topology. A mesh topology provides redundant communication paths
between some or all devices (partial or full mesh).
Mesh Network Topology
Summary
Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can probably build a home or small business
computer network without understanding the difference between a bus design and a star design, but becoming
familiar with the standard topologies gives you a better understanding of important networking concepts like hubs,
broadcasts, and routes.
Q5. Outline the basic sequences of steps to acquiring a DBMS.
The database management system, or DBMS, is a computer software program that is designed as the means of
managing all databases that are currently installed on a system hard drive or network. Different types of database
management systems exist, with some of them designed for the oversight and proper control of databases that are
configured for specific purposes. Here are some examples of the various incarnations of DBMS technology that are
currently in use, and some of the basic elements that are part of DBMS software applications.
As the tool that is employed in the broad practice of managing databases, the DBMS is marketed in many forms.
Some of the more popular examples of DBMS solutions include Microsoft Access, FileMaker, DB2, and Oracle.
All these products provide for the creation of a series of rights or privileges that can be associated with a specific
user. This means that it is possible to designate one or more database administrators who may control each function,
as well as provide other users with various levels of administration rights. This flexibility makes the task of using
DBMS methods to oversee a system something that can be centrally controlled, or allocated to several different
people.
A DBMS is a software package that carries out many different tasks including the provision of facilities to enable
the user to access and modify information in the database. The database is an intermediate link between the physical
database, computer and the operating system and the users. To provide the various facilities to different types of
users, a DBMS normally provides one or more specialized programming languages called database languages.
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Functions of DBMS
• DBMS free the programmers from the need to worry about the organization and
location of the data i.e. it shields the users from complex hardware level details.
• DBMS can organize process and present data elements from the database. This capability enables decision
makers to search and query database contents in order to extract answers that are not available in regular
Reports.
• Programming is speeded up because programmer can concentrate on logic of the application.
• It includes special user friendly query languages which are easy to understand by non programming users of the
system.
The various common examples of DBMS are Oracle, Access, SQL Server, Sybase, FoxPro, Dbase etc.
The service provided by the DBMS includes:

• Authorization services like log on to the DBMS, start the database, stop the Database etc.
• Transaction supports like Recovery, Rollback etc,
• Import and Export of Data.
• Maintaining data dictionary
• User's Monitoring
ADVANTAGES OF DBMS
The DBMS (Database Management System) is preferred ever the conventional file
Processing system due to the following advantages:
1. Controlling Data Redundancy - In the conventional file processing system, every user group maintains its own
files for handling its data files. This may lead to
• Duplication of same data in different files.

• Wastage of storage space, since duplicated data is stored.
• Errors may be generated due to updating of the same data in different files.
• Time in entering data again and again is wasted.
• Computer Resources are needlessly used.
• It is very difficult to combine information.
2. Elimination of Inconsistency - In the file processing system information is duplicated

throughout the system. So changes made in one file may be necessary be carried over to
another file. This may lead to inconsistent data. So we need to remove this duplication of data in multiple file
to eliminate inconsistency.
For example: - Let us consider an example of student's result system. Suppose that in STU¬DENT file it is
indicated that Roll no= 10 has opted for 'Computer' course but in
RESULT file it is indicated that 'Roll No. =l 0' has opted for 'Accounts' course. Thus, in
this case the two entries for z particular student don't agree with each other. Thus,
database is said to be in an inconsistent state. Sc to eliminate this conflicting information
we need to centralize the database. On centralizing the data base the duplication will be controlled and hence
inconsistency will be removed.
Data inconsistency are often encountered in every day life Consider an another example,
we have all come across situations when a new address is communicated to an organization that we deal it (Eg-
Telecom, Gas Company, Bank). We find that some of the communications from that organization are received at a
new address while other continued to be mailed to the old address. So combining all the data in database would
involve reduction in redundancy as well as inconsistency so it is likely to reduce the costs for collection storage and
updating of Data.
Let us again consider the example of Result system. Suppose that a student having Roll
no -201 changes his course from 'Computer' to 'Arts'. The change is made in the SUBJECT file but not in
RESULT'S file. This may lead to inconsistency of the data. So we need to centralize the database so that changes
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once made are reflected to all the tables where a particulars field is stored. Thus the update is brought automatically
and is known as propagating updates.
3. Better service to the users - A DBMS is often used to provide better services to the
users. In conventional system, availability of information is often poor, since it normally difficult to obtain
information that the existing systems were not designed for. Once several conventional systems are combined to
form one centralized database, the availability of information and its updateness is likely to improve since the data
can now be shared and DBMS makes it easy to respond to anticipated information requests.
Centralizing the data in the database also means that user can obtain new and combined information easily that
would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Also use of DBMS should allow users that don't know
programming to interact with the data more easily, unlike file processing system where the programmer may need
to write new programs to meet every new demand.
4. Flexibility of the System is improved - Since changes are often necessary to the contents of the data stored in
any system, these changes are made more easily in a centralized database than in a conventional system.
Applications programs need not to be changed on changing the data in the database.
5. Integrity can be improved - Since data of the organization using database approach is centralized and would be
used by a number of users at a time. It is essential to enforce integrity-constraints.
In the conventional systems because the data is duplicated in multiple files so updating or changes may sometimes
lead to entry of incorrect data in some files where it exists.
For example: - The example of result system that we have already discussed. Since multiple files are to maintained,
as sometimes you may enter a value for course which may not exist. Suppose course can have values (Computer,
Accounts, Economics, and Arts) but we enter a value 'Hindi' for it, so this may lead to an inconsistent data, so lack
of Integrity.
Even if we centralized the database it may still contain incorrect data. For example: -
• Salary of full time employ may be entered as Rs. 500 rather than Rs. 5000.
• A student may be shown to have borrowed books but has no enrollment.
• A list of employee numbers for a given department may include a number of non existent employees.
These problems can be avoided by defining the validation procedures whenever any update operation is attempted.
6. Standards can be enforced - Since all access to the database must be through DBMS,
so standards are easier to enforce. Standards may relate to the naming of data, format of
data, structure of the data etc. Standardizing stored data formats is usually desirable for
The purpose of data interchange or migration between systems.
7. Security can be improved - In conventional systems, applications are developed in an

adhoc/temporary manner. Often different system of an organization would access different components of the
operational data, in such an environment enforcing security can be quiet difficult. Setting up of a database makes it
easier to enforce security restrictions since data is now centralized. It is easier to control who has access to what
parts of the database. Different checks can be established for each type of access (retrieve, modify, delete etc.)
to each piece of information in the database.
Consider an Example of banking in which the employee at different levels may be given
access to different types of data in the database. A clerk may be given the authority to
know only the names of all the customers who have a loan in bank but not the details of
each loan the customer may have. It can be accomplished by giving the privileges to each
employee.
8. Organization's requirement can be identified - All organizations have sections and departments and each of
these units often consider the work of their unit as the most important and therefore consider their need as the most
important. Once a database has
been setup with centralized control, it will be necessary to identify organization's requirement and to balance the
12

needs of the competating units. So it may become necessary to ignore some requests for information if they conflict
with higher priority need of the organization.
It is the responsibility of the DBA (Database Administrator) to structure the database

system to provide the overall service that is best for an organization.
For example: - A DBA must choose best file Structure and access method to give fast
response for the high critical applications as compared to less critical applications.
9. Overall cost of developing and maintaining systems is lower - It is much easier to respond to unanticipated
requests when data is centralized in a database than when it is stored in a conventional file system. Although the
initial cost of setting up of a database can be large, one normal expects the overall cost of setting up of a database,
developing and maintaining application programs to be far lower than for similar service using conventional
systems, Since the productivity of programmers can be higher in using non-procedural languages that have been
developed with DBMS than using procedural languages.
10. Data Model must be developed - Perhaps the most important advantage of setting up of database system is the
requirement that an overall data model for an organization be build. In conventional systems, it is more likely that
files will be designed as per need of particular applications demand. The overall view is often not considered.
Building an overall view of an organization's data is usual cost effective in the long terms.
11. Provides backup and Recovery - Centralizing a database provides the schemes such as recovery and backups
from the failures including disk crash, power failures, software errors which may help the database to recover from
the inconsistent state to the state that existed prior to the occurrence of the failure, though methods are very
complex.
Query, Data Manipulation, and Reporting Capabilities: -
The DBMS’s ability to support reporting requirements, along with users’ query and data
manipulation needs, is the cornerstone of today’s management information systems. A sound
DBMS is going to provide the capability to generate structured reports in a variety of formats. In addition, the
DBMS will provide a query language that is powerful, yet easy to learn and use. The language should be able to
support both planned and unplanned query requirements with short response times.
Support of Specialized Programming Requirements: -

Developing specialized programs to interface with the DBMS requires facilities for supporting program
development and program testing. A worthy DBMS will provide a host language for expressing standard procedural
program structures or will provide an interface capability for quick prototyping of applications.
Physical Data Organization Options: -

The firm acquiring a DBMS may not wish to involve itself in the details of physical data organization.
Instead, it may gauge the efficiency of a DBMS’s physical organization by running sample applications.
For those who are interested, however, exploring the physical organization features may be of value. For example,
it is known that the inverted list is most efficient in supporting multikey retrieval, whereas the chain list is superior
for file updating since there is no need for updating a separate file. Information on other architectural features may
be elicited in the process of considering the DBMS’s capability to support the types of applications common to the
firm
Steps to acquiring a DBMS

The steps in developing any application can be represented as a linear sequence (Pressman, 2000) where each step
in the sequence is a function, which passes its output to its successor function. Adherence of a 'waterfall
development model' ensures quality software, which is 'complete', 'efficient', 'usable', 'consistent', 'correct' and
'flexible'. These traits are also some of the core underpinnings of a well-built database (Moody & Shanks, 2002).
The waterfall model can be applied to database design theory as effectively as it is applied to other software
engineering theory. The steps can be summarized as follows (Batini et al.,1986):
13

Requirements specification -> Analysis -> Conceptual design -> Implementation Design-> Physical Schema
Design and Optimisation
Data Models & Schemas as a Means of Capturing Data
The database development design phase brings up the concept of 'data models'. Data models are diagrams or
schemas, which are used to present the data requirements at different levels of abstraction. The first step in the
Database Development Life Cycle is to draw up a requirements document.
The requirements document can then be analysed and turned into a basic data set which can be converted into a
conceptual model. The end result of the conceptual design phase is a conceptual data model which provides little
information of how the database system will eventually be implemented. The conceptual data model is simply a
high-level overview of the database system.
In the implementation design phase, the conceptual data model is translated into a 'logical' representation of the
database system. The logical data model conveys the "logical functioning and structure" of the database (Benyon,
1993) and describes 'how the data is stored' (Dan et al., 2007) (e.g. what tables are used, what constraints are
applied) but is not specific to any DBMS. Logical database model is a lower-level conceptual model, which must be
translated to a physical design
Physical modelling deals with the "representational aspects" and the "operational aspects"
(Benyon & Murray, 1993) of the database, i.e. the internal DBMS specific operations and processes and how the
DBMS interacts with the data, the database and the user. The translation from logical design to physical design
assigns "functions" to both the machine (the DBMS) and to the user (Benyon & Murray, 1993), functions such as
storage and security (Batini et al., 1986), and additional aspects such as consistency (of data) and learnability
(Benyon & Murray, 1993) are dealt with in the physical model/schema. Practically speaking, a physical schema is
the SQL code used to build the database.
One benchmark of a good database is one, which is complete, integral, simple, understandable, flexible and
implementable (Moody & Shanks, 2002). Batini et al says that database modelling strives for a "nonredundant,
unified representation of all data managed in an organization" (Batini et al., 1986). By following the above
methodology,
and by using the data models, these database design ideals are fulfilled. In conclusion,
here are two examples of why using data models is paramount to capturing and
Conveying data requirementsof the information system:
(i) By drawing up a 'logical model', extra data items can be added more easily in that model then in the physical
model. A database design that can change easily according to needs of the company is important; because it ensures
the final database system is complete and up-to-date.
(ii) Another consideration is understandability. By initially creating a 'conceptual model', both the designer and the
organization are able to understand the database design and decide if it is complete or not. If there were no
'conceptual model', the organization would not be able to 'conceptualise' the database design and make sure that it
actually represents all the data requirements of the organization.
(iii) By creating a physical model, the designers can have a low level overview of how the database system would
operate before it is actually implemented.
SQL Statements - Implementing the Database

The final step is to physically implement the logical design which was illustrated in Figure 4. To physically
implement the database, SQL can be used. These are the main steps in implementing the database:
1. Create the database tables.

The tables come directly from the information contained in the Data Dictionary. The following blocks of code each
represent a row in the data dictionary and are executed one
after another. The blocks of "create table" code contain the details of all the data items (COMPANY, SUPPLIER,
PURCHASES, EMPLOYEE etc), their attributes (names,
ages, costs, numbers and other details), the Relationships between the data items, the Keys and Data Integrity Rules.
All of this information is already detailed in the Data Dictionary, but now we are actually converting it and
implementing it in a physical database system.
2. Populate the tables.

Use SQL statements to populate each table with specific data (such as employee names, ages, wages etc).
14

3. Query the database.

Write SQL statements to obtain information and knowledge about the company, e.g. how many employees are
there, total profit etc.
Keys & Data Integrity Rules

Data integrity rules are a core component of a data model. Integrity rules "implicitly or explicitly define the set of
consistent database state(s)". So, integrity rules "ensure that database states and changes of state confirm to
specified rules." Data integrity rules are of two types: Entity integrity rules and Referential integrity rules. (Codd,
1982).
How do keys relate to ensuring that changes in database states confirm to specified rules? Well, for example, you
could ensure that the primary key of an entity cannot be null. This is one way of ensuring entity integrity. If primary
keys were allowed to be null, then there would be no way of ensuring that individual entities were uniquely
identifiable. If you cannot ensure that individual entities are uniquely identifiable then you can't ensure that the
database is 'integral', which is a core property of a properly designed data model (Moody & Shanks, 2002). So, by
ensuring that keys follow certain rules, you can ensure integrity of data.
Another way of enforcing integrity of data via keys, is to ensure that, if two tables are
related to each other, an attribute of one relation must be the same as the primary attribute
(primary key) of the other one. Enforcing this rule ensures referential integrity of data.
Q6. Differentiate among Trojans, Worms and Viruses. Give one example of each.
Viruses, worms and Trojan Horses are all malicious programs that can cause damage to your computer, but there
are differences among the three.
The most common blunder people make when the topic of a computer virus arises is to refer to a worm or Trojan
horse as a virus. While the words Trojan, worm and virus are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the
same. Viruses, worms and Trojan Horses are all malicious programs that can cause damage to your computer, but
there are differences among the three, and knowing those differences can help you to better protect your computer
from their often damaging effects.
Trojan
Trojan, is software that appears to perform a desirable function for the user prior to run
or install, but (perhaps in addition to the expected function) steals information or harms
the system
Purpose and uses

Adware
A destructive program that masquerades as a benign application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate
themselves but they can be just as destructive. One of the most insidious types of Trojan horse is a program that
claims to rid a computer of viruses but instead introduces viruses onto the computer.
The term comes from the Greek story of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks give a giant wooden horse to their
foes, the Trojans, ostensibly as a peace offering. But after the Trojans drag the horse inside their city walls, Greek
soldiers sneak out of the horse's hollow belly and open the city gates, allowing their compatriots to pour in and
capture Troy.
Security
Trojan horses may allow a hacker remote access to a target computer system. Once a Trojan horse has been
installed on a target computer system, a hacker may have access to the computer remotely and perform various
operations, limited by user privileges on the target computer system and the design of the Trojan horse.
Operations that could be performed by a hacker on a target computer system include:
• Use of the machine as part of a botnet (e.g. to perform automated spamming or to distribute Denial-of-
service attacks)
• Data theft (e.g. retrieving passwords or credit card information)
15

• Installation of software, including third-party malware

• Downloading or uploading of files on the user's computer
• Modification or deletion of files
• Keystroke logging
• Watching the user's screen
• Crashing the computer
Trojan horses in this way require interaction with a hacker to fulfill their purpose, though the hacker need not be the
individual responsible for distributing the Trojan horse. It is possible for individual hackers to scan computers on a
network using a port scanner in the hope of finding one with a malicious Trojan horse installed, which the hacker
can then use to control the target computer.
As mentioned earlier on, the term "Trojan horse" was taken from a clever Greek plan described by Homer in the
Iliad. After seemingly abandoning the siege of Troy, the
Greeks placed armed men inside a huge wooden horse. The horse was welcomed into the city by the Trojans, who
believed it was a symbol of peace; they slept while the Greeks exited the horse and opened the gates allowing the
Greek army into Troy, conquering the city.
Current use
Due to the popularity of botnets among hackers and the availability of advertising services that permit authors to
violate their users' privacy, Trojan horses are becoming more common. According to a survey conducted by Bit
Defender from January to June 2009, "Trojan-type malware is on the rise, accounting for 83-percent of the global
malware detected in the world". This virus has a relationship with worms as it spreads with the help given by
worms and travel across the internet with them
Trojan are impostors—files that claim to be something desirable but, in fact, are malicious. A very important
distinction between Trojan horse programs and true viruses is that they do not replicate themselves. Trojan horses
contain malicious code that when triggered cause loss, or even theft, of data. For a Trojan horse to spread, you must
invite these programs onto your computers; for example, by opening an email attachment or downloading and
running a file from the Internet. Trojan. Vundo is a Trojan horse
Worms
Worms are programs that replicate themselves from system to system without the use of a host file. This is in
contrast to viruses, which requires the spreading of an infected host file. Although worms generally exist inside of
other files, often Word or Excel documents, there is a difference between how worms and viruses use the host file.
Usually the worm will release a document that already has the "worm" macro inside the document. The entire
document will travel from computer to computer, so the entire document should be considered the worm
W32.Mydoom.AX@mm is an example of a worm
Virus
A computer virus is a small program written to alter the way a computer operates, without the permission or
knowledge of the user. A virus must meet two criteria:
• It must execute itself. It often places its own code in the path of execution of another program.
• It must replicate itself. For example, it may replace other executable files with a copy of the virus infected file.
Viruses can infect desktop computers and network servers alike.
Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the
hard disk. Others are not designed to do any damage, but simply to replicate themselves and make their presence
known by presenting text, video, and audio messages. Even these benign viruses can create problems for the
computer user. They typically take up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often cause
erratic behavior and can result in system crashes. In addition, many viruses are bug-ridden, and these bugs may lead
to system crashes and data loss.
Five recognized types of viruses
File Inspector Viruses File infector viruses infect program files. These viruses normally infect
executable code, such as .com and .exe files. The can infect other files when an
infected program is run from floppy, hard drive, or from the network. Many of
16

these viruses are memory resident. After memory becomes infected, any no
infected executable that runs becomes infected. Examples of known file infector
viruses include Jerusalem and Cascade.
Boot Sector viruses Boot sector viruses infect the system area of a disk; that is, the boot record on
floppy disks and hard disks. All floppy disks and hard disks (including disks
containing only data) contain a small program in the boot record that is run
when the computer starts up. Boot sector viruses attach themselves to this part
of the disk and activate when the user attempts to start up from the infected
disk. These viruses are always memory resident in nature. Most were written
for DOS, but, all PCs, regardless of the operating system, are potential targets
of this type of virus. All that is required to become infected is to attempt to start
up your computer with an infected floppy disk Thereafter, while the virus
remains in memory, all floppy disks that are not write protected will become
infected when the floppy disk is accessed. Examples of boot sector viruses are
Form, Disk Killer, Michelangelo, and Stoned.
Master Boot record viruses Master boot record viruses are memory-resident viruses that infect disks in the
same manner as boot sector viruses. The difference between these two virus
types is where the viral code is located. Master boot record infectors normally
save a legitimate copy of the master boot record in a different location.
Windows NT computers that become infected by either boot sector viruses or
master boot sector viruses will not boot. This is due to the difference in how the
operating system accesses its boot information, as compared to Windows
98/Me. If your Windows NT system is formatted with FAT partitions you can
usually remove the virus by booting to DOS and using antivirus software. If the
boot partition is NTFS, the system must be recovered
by using the three Windows NT Setup disks. Examples of master boot record
infectors are NYB, AntiExe, and Unashamed.
Multipartite Viruses Multipartite (also known as polypartite) viruses infect both boot records and
program files. These are particularly difficult to repair. If the boot area is
cleaned, but the files are not, the boot area will be reinfected. The same holds
true for cleaning infected files. If the virus is not removed from the boot area,
any files that you have cleaned will be reinfected. Examples of multipartite
viruses include One-half, Emperor, Anthrax and Tequilla.
Macro Viruses These types of viruses infect data files. They are the most common and have
cost corporations the most money and time trying to repair. With the advent of
Visual Basic in Microsoft's Office 97, a macro virus can be written that not only
infects data files, but also can infect other files as well. Macro viruses infect
Microsoft Office Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Access files. Newer strains are
now turning up in other programs as well. All of these viruses use another
program's internal programming language, which was created to allow users to
automate certain tasks within that program. Because of the ease with which
these viruses can be created, there are now thousands of them in circulation.
Examples of macro viruses include W97M.Melissa, WM. Nice Day and
W97M.Groov.
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MS-54 REFERENCE MATERIAL

Steps in a rational decision making model

Phases of decision-making process are:

Pros and cons

Specific types of rational decision making models

Bounded rational decision making models

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Vroom-Jago decision model

The ultimate decision making model

Recognition primed decision making model

The concept of MIS:

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Methods of Decision Making

Type Of Decision Methods of decision making

System Design & Decision Making

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Five CSFs for IS requirements gathering

1. Management commitment to the project

2. Interaction between users and IS personnel

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3. Goal congruence among IS, users, and management

Q3. Explain the concept of System and its usefulness in MIS.

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Fundamental Information System Concepts

Control: involves monitoring and evaluating feedback to determine whether a system is

Components of Information System

There are the five basic resources of information system.

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• hardware resources consist of machine and media,

Information System Activities

Overview of Information System s

Q4. Discuss the various Kinds of network topologies

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Bus Network Topology

Ring Network Topology

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Star Network Topology

Tree Network Topology

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Mesh Network Topology

Q5. Outline the basic sequences of steps to acquiring a DBMS.

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The service provided by the DBMS includes:

• Duplication of same data in different files.

2. Elimination of Inconsistency - In the file processing system information is duplicated

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7. Security can be improved - In conventional systems, applications are developed in an

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It is the responsibility of the DBA (Database Administrator) to structure the database

Support of Specialized Programming Requirements: -

Physical Data Organization Options: -

Steps to acquiring a DBMS

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SQL Statements - Implementing the Database

1. Create the database tables.

2. Populate the tables.

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3. Query the database.

Keys & Data Integrity Rules

Purpose and uses

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