Chapter 26 Geometric Optics

instead of as waves, looking at light as rays along in the direction of propagation

Reflection
a process in which light bounces off of a surface surface
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, law of reflection
θi = θr normal
θr
θi
angles are measured from the normal to the surface
if the surface is smooth such that all light rays are reflected in the same
direction, this is called specular reflection
if the surface is rough such that all light rays are not reflected in the same direction, this is called
diffused reflection

Plane Mirror
a plane mirror is just a flat mirror
observer
mirror mirror

observer

object image object image

the object distance is the distance between the mirror and object
the image distance is the distance between the mirror and image
for a plane mirror these two distances are the same
the magnification is +1 because the apparent size of the image is the same as the object and the
object and image have the same orientation
mirror

object image
orientation orientation

object object image image

size distance distance size

object image

page 1
Example 26-1
An observer at table level a distance d behind the object which is also a distance d from a plane
mirror looks at the top of the image. What is the height of the location where the light from the top
of the object bounce off of the mirror (in terms of the height of the object)?
mirror

h
observer y

d object d image

for the labeled diagram below,

θ
h-y
θ
h θ
y
θ

d d

the shaded triangles say that

h−y y 2
tan θ = = ⇒ 2(h − y) = y ⇒ 2h − 2y = y ⇒ y = h
d 2d 3

Example: mirror size

What is the minimum height of a mirror required for a person to see himself entirely?
observer

h/2
h θ
θ

Due to the law of reflection, 1/2 height of the person.

Example: corner reflector

Two mirrors are placed at right angle with each other. What is the 30°
angle of the reflected ray with respect to the x axis if the incident 30°
60° 60°
rays is 30° from the x axis? 30°

By looking at the triangles, the angle of the reflected ray is also 30°.

Spherical Mirror
a mirror made of a section of a sphere concave mirror
if the reflective side is curved in then it is a concave mirror
radius
if the reflective side is curved out then it is a convex mirror principal
the radius is always perpendicular to the mirror surface so it is center focus axis
always the normal

page 2
for a concave mirror, the focus is defined by where parallel convex mirror
incident rays converge after reflection
radius
for a convex mirror, the focus is defined by where parallel
principal
incident rays appear to originate after reflection axis focus center
the focus is located half way between the mirror and the center
of curvature of the mirror
for a concave mirror, the actual light rays converge so the image
is called real
for a convex mirror, the actual light rays diverge so the image is called virtual

θr
incident incident θi
light ray θi light ray
θr

center focus focus center

Spherical Aberration
for “large” mirrors, parallel rays focus perfectly for only parabolic mirrors
for spherical mirrors, the reflected light rays donʼt exactly line up at the focus so the image is
always slightly fuzzy

Ray Tracing
method to find the image due to an optical instrument graphically
where these three rays intersect (or appear to originate) is where the image is located
the 3 principal rays
1." incident ray parallel to the principal axis reflects through the focus
2." incident ray going through the focus reflects back parallel to the principal axis
3." incident ray going through the center of curvature returns reflects back through the center of
curvature

concave mirror: object outside the focus

principal ray 1 principal ray 2 principal ray 3

c f c f c f
o o o

page 3
the image is real, upside-down, and smaller

c f
o
image

concave mirror: object inside the focus

principal ray 1 principal ray 2 principal ray 3

c f c f c f
o o o

the image is virtual, right-side-up, and larger

demo: concave mirror

convex mirror: object anywhere

principal ray 1 principal ray 2 principal ray 3

the image is virtual, right-side-up, and smaller

animation: convex mirror

page 4
Mirror Equation
mathematical method for finding the properties of an
image due to a mirror do>0
ho>0 f>0
the focal length is defined as
1
f =± R di>0
2
hi<0
+ for a concave and – for a convex mirror
the mirror equation says where the image is
1 1 1
= +
f do d i do>0
ho>0 f<0
the size of the image is given by the magnification
h d di<0
m= i =− i hi>0
ho do

Mirror Sign Conventions

focal length: concave mirror is positive and convex mirror is negative
object distance: in front of mirror is positive and behind the mirror is negative
image distance: in front of mirror is positive and behind the mirror is negative
image magnification: same orientation as the object is positive and opposite orientation as the
object is negative

Example
The concave side of a spoon has a focal length of 5.00 cm. What are the image distances and
magnifications of an object whose object distances are (a) 25.0 cm, (b) 9.00 cm, and (c) 2.00 cm?
A diagram of part (a) shows that the image distance is approximately +6 cm.

10 5
25

Using the mirror equation,

−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
di = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − = 6.25 cm
⎝ f do ⎠ ⎝ 5 cm 25 cm ⎟⎠

The magnification is
di 6.25 1
m=− =− = −0.25 = −
do 25 4

page 5
A diagram of part (b) shows that the image distance is about +10 cm. 9
Using the mirror equation,
−1 −1 10 5
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
di = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − = 11.3 cm
⎝ f do ⎠ ⎝ 5 cm 9 cm ⎟⎠

The magnification is
di 11.3
m=− =− = −0.25 = −1.25
do 9

A diagram of part (c) shows that the image distance is about -1.3
cm.
Using the mirror equation, 10 5
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
di = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − = −3.33 cm 2
⎝ f do ⎠ ⎝ 5 cm 2 cm ⎟⎠
At least the sign is correct and it is in the ball park.

The magnification is
di −3.33
m=− =− = +1.7
do 2

Example
A convex mirror has a radius of curvature of 20.0 cm. What is the image distance for an object
6.33 cm from the mirror? What is the magnification of the image?

6.33 ~4.5 10 20

It appears that the image distance should be about -4.5 cm and the magnification is about +0.6.
The mirror equation says that
−1 −1
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
di = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − = −3.88 cm
⎝ f do ⎠ ⎝ −10 cm 6.33 cm ⎟⎠

The magnification is
d −3.88 cm
m=− i =− = +0.61
do 6.33 cm

page 6
Example
A 1.75 m person standing 1.10 m from a sphere of 8.50 cm diameter casts an image of what size
and location?
The object size is 1.75 m. The object distance is 1.10 m. The radius of curvature is 0.0425 m.
The focal length is 0.02125 m. Since the mirror is convex, the focal length is actually -0.02125 m.
Using the mirror equation,
−1 −1
1 1 1 ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= − ⇒ di = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − = −0.0208 m = −2.08 cm
d i f do ⎝ f do ⎠ ⎝ −0.02125 m 1.10 m ⎟⎠

This is 2.08 cm behind the mirror. The size of the image is

di −0.0208 m
m=− =− = +0.0190 ⇒ h i = 0.0190h o = 0.0332 m = 3.32 cm
do 1.10 m

Example
To look at the back side of a tooth with a greater than 1 magnification and an upright image, what
kind of mirror must be used?
If the mirror is placed 1.5 cm from the tooth and a magnification of +2.0 is desired, what should be
the focal length of the mirror?
To meet both requirements, a concave mirror is necessary.
The mirror equation says that
−1 −1
1 1 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
= + ⇒ f =⎜ + ⎟ =⎜ + ⎟
f do d i ⎝ do d i ⎠ ⎝ 1.5 cm d i ⎠
Since the magnification is
di
m=− = +2.0, d i = −2d o
do
combining the two equations gives
−1
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
f =⎜ + = 3 cm
⎝ 1.5 −2(1.5) ⎟⎠

Refraction
the bending of light path passing through the interface between two materials with different
speeds of light
the speed of the medium is measured using the index of refraction, n, defined as
c c
v= or n =
n v
for some substances: diamond 2.4, glass 1.4 to 1.7, ice 1.3, water 1.33, air 1.000
the angle of refracted light depends on the angle of incident measured from the normal
Snellʼs Law relates the angles and indexes of refraction

page 7
 n i sin θi = n r sin θr

alternatively
ni
sin θr = sin θi
nr
if light travels from a lower index medium to a higher one, the refracted angle is smaller than the
incident angle
if light travels from a higher index medium to a lower one, the refracted angle is larger than the
incident angle
no refraction occurs if the incident angle is 0° or if the indices were the same

Example
θi
1.8 m
You shine a laser at an object that is under water. The beam starts
out 1.8 m above the water and it hits a spot 2.4 m away on the 2.4 m
surface. The water is 5.5 m deep. How far away is the object from θr
you? 5.5 m
object
From the diagram, the incident angle is x
2.4 m
tan θi = ⇒ θi = 0.927 rad = 53.1°
1.8 m
The index of refraction of air is 1.00 and of water is 1.33. So the
refracted angle is
(1.00)sin(0.927 rad) = (1.33)sin θr ⇒ θr = 0.645 rad = 37.0°
This means the distance x is apparent object
location
x
tan θr = ⇒ x = 4.14 m actual object
5.5 m
location
and the distance of the object from you is 6.5 m. And it appear
to come from a shallower location.

Total Internal Reflection refracted

light
when a ray comes from a higher index of refraction medium to
one that is lower, the refracted angle is larger than the incident
angle partially
reflected incident
the refracted angle will reach 90° before the incident angle light light
the incident angle at which the refracted angle is 90° is called
the critical angle
refracted
The light is reflected back from the interface and is called total light
internal reflection
n totally
incident
n i sin θi = n r sin θr ⇒ n i sin θc = n r sin 90° ⇒ sin θc = r reflected
light
ni light critical
angle
the reflected light is total polarized parallel to the interface
surface when the reflected and refracted angles are
perpendicular to each other

page 8
Example
What are the critical angles for light traveling from glass (n = 1.50) to air (1.00) and from glass to
water (n = 1.33)?
From glass to air,
n i sin θi = n r sin θr ⇒ (1.50)sin θc = (1.00)sin 90° = 1.00 ⇒ θc = 41.8°
From glass to water,
n i sin θi = n r sin θr ⇒ (1.50)sin θc = (1.33)sin 90° = 1.33 ⇒ θc = 62.5°

Demo: light pipe

critical angle path
cladding (n<1.5)
incident fiber (n=1.5)
light
totally
reflected
light

Lenses

Ray Tracing converging lenses diverging lenses

two kinds of lenses: converging (convex) and diverging
(concave)
converging (convex) lenses bend light rays together
diverging (concave) lenses bend light rays away from
each other
real vs thin lenses real lens thin lens
light traveling through a real lens passes through two
refractive surfaces θ1i
θ2r
a thin lens is a model of a real lens that uses focal θ1r θ2i
points to show where light rays go

Converging Lens
the 3 principal rays
1." ray parallel to the principal axis goes through the
focus on the other side
2." ray coming through the focus comes out parallel to the principal axis
3." ray going through the center of the lens passes through unchanged
object outside the focus
lens
object

image
principal axis
focus

page 9
the image is made of actual, converging light rays so it is real
object inside the focus
image lens

principal axis
focus object

the image is made of light rays that donʼt converge to form an image so the image is virtual
Demo: converging lens animation

Diverging Lens
the 3 principal rays
1." ray parallel to the principal axis appears to come from the focus on the same side
2." ray going toward the opposite focus comes out parallel to the principal axis
3." ray going through the center of the lens passes through unchanged
for an object beyond the focus, the image is virtual since the light rays do not converge but looks
to come from some other location
lens
object image

principal axis
focus

for an object inside the focus, the image is still virtual

lens

object
principal axis
focus image

Demo: diverging lens animation

Thin Lens Equation

mathematical way to describe a thin lens
1 1 1
= +
f do d i
with the magnification
d
m=− i
do

page 10
Thin Lens Sign Conventions
focal length: converging lens is positive and diverging lens is negative
object distance: positive (real) if the object is on the side where the light is coming toward the lens
" negative (virtual) if the object is on the side where the light is leaving the lens
image distance: positive (real) if the image is on the side where the light is leaving the lens
" negative (virtual) if the image is on the side where the light is coming toward the lens
image magnification: same orientation as object is positive and opposite object is negative

Example
A glass converging lens has a focal length of f. Would the focal length of the same lens be larger
or smaller if the lens were to be immersed in water?
The amount of refraction is decreased when immersed in water so the focal length increases.

Example
A lens produces a real image twice as larger as the original object. The image is located 15 cm
from the lens. What is the object distance and what is the focal length of the lens?
Since the image is real, it means the lens is a converging lens. It also means that the image is
upside-down. The second statements say the following
d d 15 cm
m = − i ⇒ do = − i = − = +7.5 cm
do m −2
The object distance is +7.5 cm so the focal length is
−1 −1
1 1 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= + ⇒ f =⎜ + ⎟ =⎜ + = 5.0 cm
f do d i ⎝ do d i ⎠ ⎝ 7.5 cm 15 cm ⎟⎠

Example
A object is placed 12 cm from a diverging lens of focal length -7.9 cm. What is the image distance
and what is the magnification of the image?
The thin lens equation says that the image distance is
−1 −1
1 1 1 ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= + ⇒ di = ⎜ − ⎟ =⎜ − = −4.8 cm
f do d i ⎝ f do ⎠ ⎝ −7.9 cm 12 cm ⎟⎠
The magnification then is
d −4.8 cm
m=− i =− = +0.40
do 12 cm

Dispersion lower index

refraction is frequency dependent
the index of refraction is different for different frequencies
this frequency dependence is called dispersion
higher frequency light (blue) bends more (n is larger) than lower higher index
frequency light (red) (n is smaller)

page 11
Rainbow angle-accurate diagram
rainbows are formed from sunlight is refracted then reflected then
refracted again from water droplets in the sky sun light
blue light is refracted more so it comes back at a sharper angle
from the sun light
sun light

sun

sun light
observer rain drops

rainbow is seen when you are between the sun and the water
droplets
in fact, if you are elevated, you could see the entire rainbow
which is circularly symmetric

sun light (white)

observer
sun

rain drops

if the sun light is strong enough and there is enough rain drops, you can see a secondary rainbow
in which the color order is reversed because of an extra bounce within the rain drop
more light is lost so it is also weaker

sun light

sun

observer rain drops

page 12