Tunnelling and

Underground Space
Technology
incorporating Trenchless
Technology Research
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

Structural health monitoring of underground facilities

– Technological issues and challenges
S. Bhalla b, Y.W. Yang a,*
, J. Zhao a, C.K. Soh a

a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
b
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India

Received 12 August 2004; received in revised form 23 March 2005; accepted 25 March 2005
Available online 31 May 2005

Abstract

Driven by the scarcity of land, many urban planners are seriously considering underground space to meet residential, commer-
cial, transportation, industrial and municipal needs of their cities. Besides saving land resources, the benefits offered by underground
structures include safety against earthquakes and hurricanes, and freedom from urban noise. However, owing to their unique design
and construction, they call for rigorous structural health monitoring (SHM) programmes during construction and operation, espe-
cially when important structures are located nearby on the ground surface. Their continuous monitoring can serve to mitigate poten-
tial hazards, ensure better performance and facilitate in-depth understanding of the overall structural behaviour. This paper
addresses major technological issues and challenges associated with structural monitoring of underground structures. A detailed
review of the available sensor technologies and methods for comprehensive monitoring is presented, with special emphasis on con-
ditions encountered underground. Practical benefits arising out of such monitoring are also highlighted, with the help of several real-
life case studies involving underground structures.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Structural health monitoring; Underground; Damage; Sensors; Strain

1. Introduction and loading environment, as well as critical responses

Civil infrastructures constitute a major part of the
critical assets of any nation. Their failure to perform at
an optimum level can severely affect the gross domestic
product of the country (Aktan et al., 1998). However,
in many parts of the world, continuous ageing of civil
infrastructures is creating unforeseen maintenance prob-
lems for civil engineers. This has motivated active
research in the development of real-time and automated
structural health monitoring (SHM) systems, which can
facilitate continuous monitoring of critical infrastruc-
tures with minimum human involvement. SHM is
defined as the measurement of a structureÕs operating
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +65 6790 4057; fax: +65 6791 0676.
E-mail address: cywyang@ntu.edu.sg (Y.W. Yang).
to track and evaluate any symptoms of operational inci-
dents, anomalies and deteriorations/damages, which
might affect its smooth operation, serviceability or safety
reliability (Aktan et al., 2000). Deteriorations/damages
may result from changes in material properties, geomet-
rical configuration, boundary conditions, system connec-
tivity and loading environment. Hence, comprehensive
SHM calls for close monitoring of each aspect.
The majority of SHM related research completed to
date has focused exclusively on surface structures only,
such as bridges and buildings (e.g. Pandey and Biswas,
1994; Farrar and Jauregui, 1998; Aktan et al., 2000;
Moyo, 2002; Brownjohn et al., 2003a,b). Several real-life
bridges have been comprehensively instrumented and
are currently being monitored (e.g. Moyo, 2002).
However, insufficient effort has been made to develop

0886-7798/$ - see front matter
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tust.2005.03.003
488 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500

monitoring systems and techniques for underground
structures, which have recently attracted the attention
of urban developers worldwide for a number of reasons.
One of the strongest arguments in favour of the con-
struction of underground structures is that they release
pressure on scarce land resources, especially in metro-
politan cities. The usable surface space saved by under-
ground construction can be alternatively utilised for
social endeavours or for creation/preservation of eco-
parks. In addition, underground structures are consid-
ered less prone to damage from extreme events such as
earthquakes, storms/hurricanes and as compared to sur-
face structures, are less susceptible to noise pollution
(Goel, 2001). They are also much safer than surface
structures for the storage of inflammable hydrocarbons
and other hazardous chemicals. Underground space is
also free from induced electro-magnetic waves, making
it ideal for electro-magnetic related research/manufac-
turing. The trend of going underground is well reflected
by the proposed Underground Science City in Singapore
(Zhao et al., 1999). Fig. 1 shows the conceptual design of
the proposed Science City, which will house prominent
scientific research laboratories (Zhao, 2003). This con-
struction does not affect in any way the current land-
scaping of the area nor compromises any
environmental issue. The deep noise free environment
will be ideal for research laboratories.
However, unlike surface structures, design and con-
struction of underground structures is far more complex
and expensive. They often encounter unprecedented
problems, both during construction and operation.
Quite often, many of the complex geotechnical and envi-
ronmental parameters cannot be accurately considered
at the design stage. Hence, many of them might be con-
servatively or erroneously estimated, resulting in uneco-
nomical or unsafe designs. Unfortunately, after
construction, the design assumptions are often not vali-
dated. Therefore, a comprehensive instrumentation of
underground structures during construction can pave
way for long-term monitoring of external loads, stress
distributions, deflections and occurrence of damages in
a continuous manner, thereby ensuring a high level of
safety. At the same time, it can serve as means for design
validation as well as a database for economizing future
constructions. This becomes more relevant in circum-
stances where unfamiliar construction technologies are
used or when a known technology is extended beyond
the normal range of application. This fact is highlighted
by a recent accident in Singapore, on April 20, 2004,
during the construction of the mass rapid transit
(MRT) circle line at Nicoll Highway. In this construc-
tion, a temporary wall, which supported a 33 m deep
excavation adjacent to Nicoll Highway, collapsed
without warning, leading to widespread cave-in across
six lanes of the Highway. The accident site, shown in
Fig. 2, covered an area of the size of two basketball
courts. The accident resulted in the loss of four lives
and injuries to many more, besides causing the closure
of a vital transportation link. Fortunately, no motorists
were travelling along the usually congested highway at
that time, otherwise the casualties would have been
much higher.
Although the incident is still under investigation,
interim report by the Committee of Inquiry (Magnus
et al., 2005) indirectly pointed finger at the design and
construction of jet grout piles that formed a component
of the soil retaining system. The committee pointed out
that being unfamiliar construction technique, more
emphasis should have been laid on periodic monitoring
of jet grout piles. Comparison between predicted and
Fig. 2. Nicoll Highway after collapse.

Science Park I

Science Park II

~400 m Shaft
40 m

Shaft

Caverns for the proposed

Underground Science City

Fig. 1. Conceptual design of the proposed Underground Science City in Singapore (after Zhao, 2003).
 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
actual values, and regular monitoring of critical junc-
tions could have allowed earlier detection of adverse
trends. In particular, the report noted, ‘‘There is need
to integrate information from various instruments and
to relate the crucial information to what is happening
at the worksite, as well as the quality of each of the ele-
ments in construction.’’ The Nicoll Highway collapse
strongly highlights the need for SHM during construc-
tion, especially in urban centres where critical structures
are likely to be situated on the ground surface above the
excavation/construction sites. SHM can provide suffi-
cient warning before serious damage or failure of the
soil supporting structures.
Although the importance of SHM is widely recogni-
sed, it has still not developed to the stage of being recog-
nised as a crucial element of the overall underground
asset management system. The main reason for this is
that SHM has not yet been a part of the relevant codes
of practice. Another reason is that so far, detailed ben-
efit cost analysis have not been carried out with respect
to underground structures. At the same time, no means
of certification is available on a broader basis.
This paper addresses major issues related to the SHM
of underground structures. A detailed description of
various available sensing technologies is covered, high-
lighting the special problems encountered in subsurface
environment. Practical advantages of SHM are demon-
strated by means of several case studies, including those
carried out by the authors.
2. Sensor systems for SHM
Comprehensive structural monitoring can be realised
only if the structure to be monitored is instrumented
with arrays of sensor systems at all critical locations.
At the same time, it is implausible to expect that any
one type of sensors alone would be able to track down
the complete structural behaviour as well as to detect
all possible structural abnormalities. Hence, comprehen-
sive monitoring calls for deploying complementary sen-
sor systems with sufficient redundancy, so that a few of
the sensors could be permitted to fail without triggering
total collapse of the monitoring system (Boller, 2002). In
addition, the sensors and the associated data retrieval
systems should be capable of withstanding the harsh
conditions encountered underground during construc-
tion and operation.
In general, SHM sensors can be classified as surface-
bonded type and embedded type. The surface-bonded
sensors can be replaced if they develop fault at any
stage. However, there is very limited possibility of repair
or replacement for the embedded sensors. Hence,
embedded sensors, if employed in underground struc-
tures, should be exceptionally robust and durable. The
following parts of this section cover the operating prin-
489
ciples of various sensing systems, which could possibly
be deployed for monitoring underground structures.
Their pros and cons are highlighted with regard to the
conditions encountered in underground structures.
2.1. Strain gauges
Strain gauges are the most widely used sensors for
structural behaviour monitoring. On a structural sur-
face, strains are caused by member deformations result-
ing from bending, torsion, shearing and elongation/
contraction. Hence, strain measurements can capture
an elementÕs behaviour quite well (Sanayei and Saletnik,
1996). For efficient performance, it is desirable that the
gauge should be stable with respect to both time and
temperature. In addition, it should have minimum
dimensions and inertia, and should exhibit linear re-
sponse over the strain range of interest (Dally et al.,
1984). Commercial strain gauges are available in various
types, based on mechanical, electrical or optical princi-
ple. Described below are the prominent types of strain
gauges available commercially.
2.1.1. Vibrating wire strain gauges (VWSG)
Fig. 3 shows the fabrication details of a typical
VWSG. A VWSG essentially consists of a pretensioned
stainless steel wire whose ends are fixed to lugs that are
spot-welded to the monitored component. A sensor coil,
positioned above the wire, when energised, plucks the
wire and measures the frequency of the resulting vibra-
tions. From the theory of vibrations, the natural fre-
quency of vibration, f, is related to the tension F in
the wire by
rffiffiffiffi
1 F
f ¼ ; ð1Þ
2l m
where l denotes the length of the wire and m its mass per
unit length. Any change in the strain, De, causes a
change in tension by DF, thereby altering the natural fre-
quency by Df. For small strains, using HookeÕs law, the
change in strain can be expressed as (Batten et al., 1999)
 m
De ¼ 4l2 ðDf Þ2 ; ð2Þ
YA
where Y is YoungÕs modulus of the wire and A its cross-
sectional area.
Vibration sensor
Vibrating wire
Spot weld
Host structure
Fig. 3. A vibrating wire strain gauge.
490 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
If VWSGs are employed for long-term monitoring of
structural components which could to be subjected to
temperature fluctuations, proper care should be exer-
cised in interpreting their readings. If the structural com-
ponent and the VWSG have the same coefficient of
thermal expansion, a, and if the monitored component
is unrestrained, each will undergo a free thermal expan-
sion strain aDT for a temperature change of DT. Thus,
no additional stress would occur either in the monitored
component or the VWSG. Consequently, the reading of
the VWSG will not undergo any change. If now an exter-
nal load is applied on the component, strain will develop
due to the applied load. Thus, in real situations where the
two effects (thermal expansion and external load) are
superimposed, the VWSG will only capture the strain
in the member resulting from external loads. Hence, no
correction is necessary in the strain measured by a
VWSG if the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
monitored component is the same as that of the VWSG.
However, if the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
monitored component is different, say b, and if the com-
ponent is unrestrained, a strain equal to (b
a)DT will
develop in the VWSG (and will be indicated by it). This
is spurious, since it does not cause any stress in the mon-
itored component. Hence, in general, when load (or con-
straints) and temperature fluctuation occur concurrently,
the measured strain em should be corrected as
ecorr ¼ em
ðb
aÞDT .
VWSGs are structurally strong and quite robust for
use in underground structures. They are especially suit-
able for long-term monitoring since vibration wires do
not undergo any decay with time (Oosterhout, 2003).
They can be easily spot welded to the reinforcement bars
of the reinforced concrete structural members. This
instrumentation technique was adopted in the bridge
linking Singapore and Malaysia, which was extensively
instrumented with VWSGs during construction in 1997
(Moyo, 2002). The VWSGs installed on the bridge are
still operational, even after eight years. Oosterhout
(2003) reported a similar monitoring programme for
Fig. 4. (a) An electrical strain gauge foil; (b) wheatstone bridge circuit.
underground structures, primarily based on VWSGs,
spanning five years. This clearly demonstrates the
robustness and longevity of VWSGs.
The main drawback of the VWSGs is that they are
only suitable for measuring static strains since they re-
quire plucking of wire. They are also susceptible to
extraneous noise in the form of ambient vibrations. If
installed externally (such as on steel struts used for sup-
porting temporary retaining walls in deep excavations),
special protection is required to prevent damage from
routine construction activities.
2.1.2. Electrical strain gauges (ESG)
ESGs are based on the principle that under a
mechanical stress, the electrical resistance of a conduc-
tor varies in proportion to the load induced strain. An
ESG essentially consists of thin metallic foil grids,
bonded to a thin, tough and flexible polyimide plastic
film, which can be adhesively bonded to the surface of
the monitored component, as shown in Fig. 4(a). The
polyimide film provides electrical insulation between
the gauge and the monitored component. When the
structural component is loaded, its strain is transferred
to the foil grid and its resistance changes accordingly.
The relative change in resistance, DR/R of the foil, is re-
lated to the strain e by (Dally et al., 1984)
DR
ð3Þ ¼ S g e; ð4Þ
R
where Sg is called the gauge factor or the calibration
constant of the ESG. It varies between 2 and 4 for most
alloys used in strain gauge fabrication, such as constan-
tan, karma and nichrome. The output DR/R of the strain
gauge is converted into a voltage signal by means of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit, as shown in Fig. 4(b). For
this circuit, the output voltage Vo is given by
 
1 DR 1
Vo ¼ Vi ¼ V i S g e. ð5Þ
4 R 4
The input voltage, Vi, is governed by the power that can
be dissipated by the gauge, which in turn depends on the
 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
gauge length (generally between 0.2 and 100 mm) and
the initial resistance of the gauge. The output voltage
usually ranges between 1 and 10 lV per microunit of
strain.
Like VWSGs, the strain measured by an ESG also
needs to be compensated against temperature. A tem-
perature change causes change in Sg as well as a change
in the original gauge resistance (R), in addition to caus-
ing the spurious strain equal to (b
a)DT. The temper-
ature related changes in Sg are very small, usually less
than 1% for a temperature variation of 100 C. Hence,
they can be neglected in routine stress analysis, unless
temperature variations of several hundred degrees are
expected. Other effects, if combined, lead to a spurious
change in the resistance of the gauge, given by
 
DR
¼ ðb
aÞS g DT þ cDT ; ð6Þ
R spurious
where c is the temperature coefficient of resistivity of the
gauge alloy. A temperature compensated gauge can be
obtained if both the terms in Eq. (6) are zero or cancel
each other. However, this rarely occurs, and that too
is over narrow temperature ranges only. Hence, in gen-
eral, corrections should be made by subtracting Eq. (6)
from the measured DR/R (Eq. (5)).
ESGs demand considerable care during installation
due to their fragile nature. Further, electrical noise is
very frequently associated with ESGs since the output
voltage from a Wheatstone bridge is of the order of
few millivolts only. Fortunately, electrical noise can be
minimised to a permissible level by employing twisted
leads with a properly grounded shield (Dally et al.,
1984). In addition, ESGs are very prone to deterioration
by water. This problem was encountered during the
monitoring of rock bolts in the underground caverns
in Singapore (Zhao et al., 2002). Hence, ESGs must be
properly sealed if used in the underground structures,
UV light
Phase mask
Input signal
Optical fibre
Grating pitch
Fig. 5. Fabrication and principle of FBG based sensors.
491
where they are likely to encounter excessive dampness.
In general, ESGs tend to be less stable as compared to
VWSGs over long periods of time. Because of this rea-
son, majority of the long-term studies reported in the lit-
erature have employed VWSGs rather than ESGs.
However, ESGs are preferred over VWSGs for short-
term measurements due to their low cost.
2.1.3. Optical fibre bragg grating (FBG) based strain
gauges
Optical fibres, which are thin fibres (few lm to few
hundred lm in diameter) of glass and silica, utilise fibre
properties to generate optoelectronic signals indicative
of the external physical parameters to be measured.
Though originally developed for telecommunication
purposes, they have found tremendous recognition as
sensors since the 1990s. Of the various available fibre
optic technologies, FBG has proven to be most versatile
(Tjin et al., 2002). A Bragg grating is a periodic struc-
ture, fabricated by exposing a photosensitised fibre to
an ultraviolet light. Fig. 5 illustrates the working princi-
ple of the FBG based strain gauge. As shown in this fig-
ure, when light from a broad band source interacts with
the grating, a single wavelength, known as Bragg wave-
length, is reflected back while the rest of the signal is
transmitted. The Bragg wavelength, kB, is related to
the grating pitch K and the effective refractive index neff
of the grating by
kB ¼ 2Kneff . ð7Þ
An external mechanical strain in the fibre shifts the
Bragg wavelength through expansion/contraction of
the grating periodicity and the photo elastic effect. Sim-
ilarly, temperature variation causes thermal expansion/
contraction of the grating periodicity and also the
refractive index. These effects provide the means of
employing the FBG written fibres as the sensor elements
Reflected signal
Transmitted signal
492 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
for measuring strains and temperatures. The change in
Bragg wavelength due to an external disturbance, com-
prising a strain change De, a temperature change DT and
a pressure change DP, can be quantitatively expressed as
DkB
¼ K e De þ K T DT þ K P DP ; ð8Þ
kB
where Ke, KP and KT are the wavelength sensitivity coef-
ficients for strain (e), temperature (T) and pressure (P)
respectively. Hence, in order to be used as strain sensor
(in the absence of pressure), the measured strain needs
to be corrected for temperature. Usually, this is achieved
by installing an additional FBG close to the strain sens-
ing FBG, but not bonded to the structure. This mea-
sures the wavelength shift on account of temperature
change alone, which can then be compensated. In addi-
tion, as in the case of VWSGs and ESGs, the spurious
strain (b
a)DT, due to differential thermal expansion
of the fibre and structure, also need to be eliminated
from the measured strain.
A comprehensive research programme is underway at
Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore,
for the development of cost-effective and durable FBG
based sensors for civil-structural applications (Ng
et al., 1998; Tjin et al., 2001, 2002; Brownjohn et al.,
2003a). The strain sensor developed at NTU consists
of an FBG, about 10 mm long, sandwiched between car-
bon composite layers (50 mm long and 0.5 mm thick), as
shown in Fig. 6. Experimental evaluation of this FBG
sensor on lab sized structures by Moyo (2002), through
static and dynamic tests, demonstrated good possibility
of its widespread use on civil structures. Several other
applications of FBG sensors on ground based structures
have also been reported (Storoy et al., 1997; Tjin et al.,
2002). Liu et al. (2002) recently demonstrated feasibility
of their application in monitoring underground
structures.
FBG sensors are small, lightweight, corrosion resis-
tant and durable. VWSGs and ESGs require cables for
recording data, which, for long distance monitoring,
suffer from electro-magnetic interference and electrical
noise. FBG sensors, on the other hand, are immune to
the electro-magnetic interference and can be multi-
plexed, thus eliminating long cables. However, they are
very fragile as compared to VWSGs and ESGs. For this
Fig. 6. FBG based strain sensor developed at NTU (Moyo, 2002).
reason, efforts to install FBG sensors on civil structures
often result in high rate of sensor failure due to the
presence of harsh environment (Storoy et al., 1997).
They are yet to fully mature into standard field proven
devices like the ESGs and the VWSGs. In addition,
the measurement system and the sensors themselves
are relatively expensive as compared to the conventional
sensor systems.
2.2. Other commonly used sensor systems for SHM
Table 1 summarises the salient features of extensom-
eters, accelerometers, pressure transducers and tempera-
ture sensors, which are also commonly used for SHM.
The next subsection describes the Ôpiezo-impedance
transducersÕ which have recently emerged as universal
damage detection sensors.
2.3. Piezo-impedance transducers
Unlike the transducers described above, piezo-imped-
ance transducers are relatively new type of sensors,
barely 10 years old. They do not measure any direct
physical parameter like stresses, strains or temperatures.
Rather, they extract a signature of the host structure to
analyse for the presence of any structural damage. The
technique utilizing the piezo-impedance transducers is
commonly known as the electro-mechanical impedance
(EMI) technique, and is capable of detecting even the
incipient damages.
Piezo-impedance transducers are made up of piezo-
electric materials such as lead zirconate titanate (acrony-
med PZT), and are referred to as piezoelectric–ceramic
patches or PZT patches. Fig. 7(a) shows the details of a
typical commercially available PZT transducer, suitable
for use as a piezo-impedance transducer. The PZT
patches exhibit two special effects due to the phenomenon
of piezoelectricity. They generate surface charges in re-
sponse to mechanical stresses applied in the plane of the
patch, which is called the Ôdirect effectÕ. Conversely, they
undergo mechanical deformations in response to an elec-
tric field applied across their thickness, which is known as
the Ôconverse effectÕ. The EMI technique utilises both the
effects concurrently in total synergy.
In the EMI technique, the PZT patch is bonded to the
surface of the monitored structure using a high-strength
epoxy adhesive and electrically excited by means of an
impedance analyser. In this configuration, the patch
(length 2l, width w and thickness h) behaves as a thin
bar undergoing axial vibration, as shown in Fig. 7(b).
An electro-mechanical model of the system is shown in
Fig. 7(c), where the structure has been replaced by two
equal mechanical impedances Z. The complex electro-
mechanical admittance Y (inverse of electrical imped-
ance) of the coupled system shown in this figure can
be derived as (Liang et al., 1994)
 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500 493

Table 1
Salient features of some common sensors used in SHM
S.no. Device Purpose Remarks
1 Extensometers
(a) Tape extensometer Measurement of convergence/divergence Both extensometers entail manual
(relative displacement between two points), recording, which proves tedious Slight
e.g. in a rock caverns after construction loosening of convergence pins could
(b) Borehole extensometer Measurement of relative displacements severely affect measurement accuracy
between several points. Can provide
displacement distribution in large rock volumes
2 Accelerometers Measurement of dynamic response, Drawbacks include bulkiness, small
either harmonic (e.g. vibration tests) bandwidth, high cost and susceptibility to
or transient (e.g. earthquakes) mechanical and electrical noise
3 Pressure transducers Measurement of pressure When used in concrete, shrinkage of
(a) Diaphragm type Measurement range between 200 and 700 MPa, concrete often causes problems
up to 10 kHz frequencies
(b) Quartz based Measurement range 700 MPa,
up to 200 kHz frequencies
4 Temperature sensors Measurement of temperature
(a) Expansion type Bulky, generally provide visual readouts
only, not suitable for automated
monitoring
(b) Resistance temperature detectors Miniaturised, temperature measurement
(RTD) can be automated; but tend to be unstable
near upper limit
(c) Thermistors More miniaturised, sensitive and stable as
compared to RTDs
(d) Thermocouples Demand maintaining constant
temperature at one terminal

3 (z)
1 (x) Alternating electric 3
10mm 2
field source E3
PZT Patch 1
l l PZT patch
10mm

Z w Z
h
Top electrode Host structure
film Structural
Bottom electrode film
l l Impedance
wrapped to top surface
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7. (a) A commercial PZT patch; (b) principle of EMI technique; (c) equivalent model of system.

     
wl T Za 2 E tan jl 2 E host structure is a function of the structural parameters,
Y ¼ 2xj e þ d Y
d 31 Y ;
h 33 Z þ Z a 31 jl i.e., the stiffness, the damping and the mass. Any dam-
ð9Þ age to the structure will cause these parameters to
change, and hence changes the drive point mechanical
where d31 is the piezoelectric strain coefficient of the impedance Z. Consequently, as can be seen from
PZT material, Y E the complex YoungÕs modulus under Eq. (9), the electromechanical admittance, Y , will under-
constant electric field, eT33 the complex electric permittiv- go change, and this serves as an indicator of the state of
ity at constant stress, Za the mechanical impedance of health of the structure. Due to high frequency of excita-
the PZT patch, x the angular frequency, and j is the tion, the EMI has very high sensitivity to damage, typi-
wave number. cally of the order of the ultrasonic techniques (Park
The electromechanical coupling represented by Eq. et al., 2003). Typically, the technique can detect flexural
(9) is utilised in damage detection in the EMI technique. and shear crack before they could be visible to the naked
In this equation, the mechanical impedance Z of the eyes (Bhalla and Soh, 2004a). Fig. 8 illustrates how
494 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
PZT patch 10x10x0.3mm
10mm 48mm
50mm
(a)
0.005
Conductance (S)
0.004
After
damage
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
180 184 188 192
(b) Frequency (kHz)
Fig. 8. An application of EMI technique: (a) test structure; (b) effect of
damage (two holes) on conductance signature.
damage can be interpreted from the measured admit-
tance signature by means of a practical example, an alu-
minium block of size 50 · 48 · 10 mm, instrumented
with a PZT patch 10 · 10 · 0.3 mm in size (see Fig.
8(a)). Damage was experimentally induced in the struc-
ture by drilling two 5 mm diameter holes through the
thickness of the specimen. Fig. 8(b) shows the effect of
the induced damage on the conductance (real part of
admittance) signature in 180–200 kHz frequency range.
A major resonant peak can be observed to have shifted
to the left on account of this damage. A simple but crude
way to quantify damage is to use statistical quantifiers
such as root mean square deviation or correlation coef-
ficient between the signatures corresponding to the
undamaged and damaged states (Park et al., 2000; Bhal-
la and Soh, 2004a). However, very recently, Bhalla and
Soh (2004b,c) formulated a parametric approach by
identifying structural parameters such as stiffness and
damping inherent in the host structure. Using this ap-
proach, the identified stiffness of the aluminium block
was found to reduce from 5.18 · 107 N/m in the pristine
state to 4.55 · 107 after the damage. By calibrating such
structural parameters with damage severity, as demon-
strated by Soh and Bhalla (in press) for concrete, mean-
ingful interpretation can be easily made from the
measured electro-mechanical admittance signatures.
Due to high sensitivity, the EMI technique has at-
tracted intensive research during the last eight years. It
also has several other advantages over the conventional
monitoring techniques which rely on the measurement
of loads, stresses or strains since it does not warrant
any complex analytical or numerical modelling of the
monitored structure. It employs low-cost and low-power
demanding PZT patches, which can be non-intrusively
bonded to the monitored structure and can be interro-
gated without necessitating the removal of finishes. No
complex data processing or any expensive hardware is
warranted. By means of an array of such transducers,
7mm
damage location can be easily identified (Soh et al.,
Hole of 5mm
diameter
2000). The technique has far greater sensitivity to dam-
age than the global methods. Several proof of concept
non-destructive evaluation (NDE) applications of the
EMI technique have been reported in the literature
(Sun et al., 1995; Ayres et al., 1998; Soh et al., 2000;
Bhalla and Soh, 2004a).
Before Although the EMI technique has been demonstrated
damage
to be highly sensitive to damage, technical details such
as sensor packaging, instrumentation and long-term
protection are not yet standardised. Hence, special con-
siderations need to be addressed before applying the
196 200
EMI technique on underground structures. A compre-
hensive research programme is currently underway at
NTU for developing low-cost practical SHM systems
based on the EMI technique. This includes the develop-
ment of realistic PZT-structure phenomenological mod-
els (Bhalla and Soh, 2003, 2004b,c; Yang et al., 2005) as
well as the development of damage localisation and
quantification algorithms (Xu et al., 2004; Naidu and
Soh, 2004). Research groups in USA are carrying out
active research for the development of low-cost and por-
table signature acquisition systems and wireless moni-
toring (Park et al., 2003; Peairs et al., 2004) that will
render the technique more economical and standardised
in the near future.
3. Practical benefits from SHM of underground
structures: case studies
This section presents a glimpse of the results and the
experience arising from the instrumentation and moni-
toring of underground facilities in Singapore and other
parts of the world. Specifically, practical benefits arising
from such instrumentation are highlighted.
3.1. Monitoring deep strutted excavations using VWSGs
Temporary walls, supported laterally by props, are
often used for retaining the sides of an excavation for
constructing basements. Coutts et al. (2001) reported
monitoring earth pressures in such excavations, made
for constructing two mass rapid transit (MRT) stations
in Singapore. The excavations were temporarily retained
by driven soldier piles and timber lagging, supported lat-
erally by multi level double I-beams. The maximum
depth of the excavation was 25 m in the Serangoon sta-
tion and 23.4 m in the Woodleigh station. In order to
monitor the load in an I-beam, two VWSGs were in-
stalled on the web, 100 mm from the top and bottom
flanges. Averaging of measurements from the two
gauges ensured elimination of bending strain if any.
 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
The gauges were instrumented 3 m from the ends of the
beams in order to circumvent possible end effects. No
temperature corrections were performed, assuming al-
most equal thermal expansion coefficients for the gauges
and the struts.
By monitoring the strut strains, the investigators
found that the measured earth pressures differed signifi-
cantly from those predicted theoretically. At the Seran-
goon station, the measured earth pressures were much
lower than the theoretical predictions, whereas at the
Woodleigh station, it was the other way round. It was
also found that at several strut locations, the compres-
sion forces exceeded their design values by as much as
51%. Using the measured earth pressures, Couts and
co-workers were able to estimate the correct soil param-
eters, which were subsequently utilised for more accu-
rate earth pressure calculations as well as for ensuring
a safer and more economical design of the temporary
supports at the other stations.
Batten et al. (1999) similarly reported monitoring
strains and temperatures on circular steel props, about
1 m in diameter, supporting temporary retaining walls
of the underground excavations. At any monitored sec-
tion of the prop, four special VWSGs, which had built-
in thermistors (for simultaneous recording of both strain
and temperature) were installed. Fig. 9 shows the sche-
matic arrangement of the VWSGs at any monitored sec-
tion. Each prop was instrumented at both ends and the
data was recorded at an interval of 2 h. The presence of
thermistors facilitated temperature measurement, en-
abling accurate temperature compensation of the mea-
sured strain, as well as estimation of the load
variations on account of temperature changes. The prop
load on account of temperature rise was found by the
measurements to be typically about 52–63% of that for
fixed-end conditions. Batten et al. (1999) therefore rec-
ommended frequent monitoring of the strains for accu-
rate recording of maximum prop strains. It was also
noted that the top of the prop was about 12 C hotter
than the bottom during summers, leading to additional
y
(VWSG)top
Prop (1m in diameter)
x lem, additional supports were installed on the roof in
(VWSG)left (VWSG)right
(VWSG)bottom
Fig. 9. Instrumentation of a section of prop with VWSG (after Batten
et al., 1999).
495
bending moments. For the configuration shown in
Fig. 9, the bending moments about the xx and yy axes
at the instrumented section were determined as
YI ðetop
ebottom Þ
M xx ¼ ;
y 2
ð10Þ
YI ðeleft
eright Þ
M yy ¼ ;
x 2
where Y denotes YoungÕs modulus of elasticity of the
prop, I the moment of inertia, e the measured corrected
strain, and x and y the coordinates of the strain gauges.
The axial load was determined as
AY
P¼ ðetop þ ebottom þ eleft þ eright Þ; ð11Þ
4
where A denotes the cross-sectional area of the prop.
Batten and co-workers recommended installing at least
four gauges at a section, especially if the instrumenta-
tion is desired near the ends of the prop from practical
point of view. Averaging eliminates the errors due to
non-uniform stress distributions, even if very severe.
Batten and co-workers also strongly recommended rep-
etition of readings to eliminate effects of extraneous
noise, especially due to ambient vibrations.
Monitoring prop loads can help in economizing the
design of temporary support systems. This can also en-
sure a safer work environment for the workers as well
as the general public in the areas surrounding the con-
struction sites by preventing accidents during under-
ground excavations.
3.2. Monitoring deflections of large underground cavity
Simple instrumentation can immensely help engineers
in making decisions pertaining to the safety, optimisa-
tion and upgrading of cavern supports, thereby prevent-
ing unnecessary wastage of resources. This fact can be
better appreciated in light of the monitoring programme
of an underground cavern reported by Goel (2001). The
monitored underground structure was a large rock cav-
ern in India, 23 m wide and 57 m high, as shown in
Fig. 10. After completing the excavation work, the roof
displacement was monitored for a period of 30 months.
A slow but continuous displacement of 0.024 mm/
month was observed (see Fig. 10) from these measure-
ments. This small but continuous movement was a mat-
ter of concern for engineers, although no adverse
symptoms were observed visually. To correct the prob-
the form of longer rock bolts. In order to verify the effi-
cacy of the upgradation, displacement monitoring was
continued for another three years. It was found that
the displacement was very effectively arrested by the
longer rock bolts, as evident from Fig. 10. This case
strongly supports the benefits of monitoring excavations
and other structures after construction.
496 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500

Fig. 10. Monitoring roof displacement of a large underground cavity (Goel, 2001).

3.3. Monitoring tunnel deformations due to adjacent

construction

Massive underground tunnelling works were carried

out in the central business district of Singapore during
the mid eighties, as a part of the MRT project. Most
tunnels were constructed using tunnel boring machines
and only a few were constructed using conventional
mining. The MRT CorporationÕs Code of Practice does
not allow any construction in close proximity of the tun-
nels that might displace the tunnels by more than 15 mm
(Sharma et al., 2001). However, the scarcity of land in
the central business district necessitated a few construc-
tions in close proximity of the MRT tunnels. One such
project was the redevelopment of Tan Tock Seng Hospi-
tal, described in detail by Sharma et al. (2001). The pro-
ject involved the construction of a 15-storey hospital
building, with two levels of basement. A large excava-
tion, about 200 m long, 140 m wide and 15 m deep
was necessary. Fig. 11 shows the layout and cross-sec-
tion of the planned excavation work. As shown in the
figure, two MRT tunnels, 6 m in diameter, criss–crossed
the proposed construction site. Significant displace-
ments were expected to occur in the tunnel lining due
to stress relief in the ground caused by the excavation. Fig. 11. (a) Layout of site. (b) Cross-section along G–G (Sharma
Finite element analysis revealed that the tunnel dis- et al., 2001).
placements were likely to be within the permissible limits.
However, due to the critical nature of the tunnels, exten- ground instrumentation consisted of water standpipes,
sive field instrumentation was additionally carried out in piezometers, inclinometers (indicated by I1, I2 and I3 in
order to ensure compliance of codal requirements. The Fig. 11(a)) and settlement markers. In addition, two
 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
automatic tunnel displacement monitoring systems, each
consisting of a motorised total station, were installed.
These systems measured the tunnelÕs displacements with
respect to a few stable reference points located suffi-
ciently far away from the excavation site (therefore unli-
kely to be affected by the excavation). With these
systems, the displacements of the tunnel lining were con-
tinuously monitored during the excavation and construc-
tion. The maximum horizontal displacement recorded by
the instruments was 6.0 mm, against 8.0 mm predicted
by the finite element method (FEM). Similarly, the max-
imum vertical displacement was measured to be 3.8 mm,
against 3.0 mm predicted by FEM. Thus, the instrumen-
tation provided a direct evidence that construction at the
site did not violate the codal requirements and the MRT
tunnels were cleared as safe for operation.
3.4. Fibre optic based systems for monitoring underground
structures
Inaudi et al. (1994, 1995) reported the development
and application of a fibre optic low-coherence interfer-
ometry technique for measuring displacements in under-
ground structures. The system could measure
displacements with an accuracy of 10 lm, over a base
ranging from 1 to 50 m. Thus, it measured overall rather
than local strains.
The technique consisted of employing two single
mode communication fibres, one in mechanical contact
with the structure and the other loosely in a neighbour-
ing pipe. A low-coherence double Michelson interferom-
eter detected the difference in length between the two
fibres, through the formation of interference fringes.
Since the displacement information was encoded in
coherence properties of light and not its intensity, the
technique was immune against connector losses or
changes in the fibre. It was also capable of taking mea-
surements at multiple points along the fibre. Being por-
table, waterproof and battery powered, the system was
robust for the underground structures.
Inaudi and co-workers reported experimental success
of the technique in laboratory tests involving a concrete
beam, 1 · 0.5 · 5 m in size, under tension, and in moni-
toring the drying shrinkage and thermal deformations of
a large slab, 20 · 5 · 0.5 m in size. They also reported
monitoring several real-life underground structures such
as anchorage cables supporting a rock wall (fibre em-
ployed to measure change in length between anchor
head and grouted zone) and monitoring strains along
the length of cast-in-situ concrete piles (fibres were at-
tached to the reinforcement bars).
With the recent advent of FBG, which is technologi-
cally more advanced than the low-coherence interferom-
etery reported by Inaudi and co-workers, there should
be much better prospects of monitoring underground
structures using fibre optic technology.
497
3.5. Dynamic strain measurement using FBG system
Liu et al. (2002) developed a FBG based dynamic
strain measurement system, capable of detecting dy-
namic strain signals of up to 5 kHz frequency in the
underground structures. The researchers demonstrated,
by means of a laboratory experiment, that rock bolts
supporting excavations in hard rocks can be employed
as sensor heads by bonding a FBG at the anchor head.
Fig. 12 shows the scheme of the setup employed by the
researchers. In this system, a 3 dB m distributed feed-
back laser, in 1548.75–1551.25 mm wavelength range,
sent a signal at an optimised wavelength through a fibre
optical circulator. Part of the signal was reflected back
from the grating and converted into an electrical signal.
The intensity change of the optical signal provided a
measure of the strain in the rock bolt. The system was
found capable of measuring strains as low as 10
9 at a
frequency of 1.7 kHz.
However, the system was reportedly prone to noise
due to laser instability, disturbance from optical cables
and connectors, and the harsh conditions found under-
ground. It was demonstrated that a powerful laser
source, coupled with an adaptive filtering algorithm,
could effectively reduce the noise levels, besides enhanc-
ing the sensitivity of the system.
3.6. Structural monitoring of underground tunnels
Bakker (2000) reported comprehensive investigation
involving monitoring of the Second Heinenoord and
Botlek railway tunnels in the Netherlands, during and
after construction. Additional results were published
by Oosterhout (2003). The overall approach adopted
by these investigators consisted of three aspects – predic-
tion, monitoring and evaluation.
Prediction was carried out using 1D analytical and
3D FEM models, with the inherent assumption that
assembly of the lining was perfect, i.e. free from misa-
lignments and imperfections. In addition, a homoge-
neous stress distribution was assumed across the
tunnel cross-section.
For the purpose of monitoring, two rings at different
locations along the tunnel, were instrumented with
strain gauges, pressure transducers and linear variable
differential transducers (LVDTs). For strain monitoring,
a total of five pairs of VWSGs, with a resolution of
1 lm/m, were instrumented in each segment, which mea-
sured two axial and three tangential strain components.
VWSG principle was adopted due to its negligible time
decay. In addition, two pressure cells (consisting of mer-
cury filled reservoir, with 0–3500 kPa range and 1 kPa
resolution) were instrumented. The LVDTs, which had
a range of ±5 mm and a resolution of 25 lm, were in-
stalled to measure the axial displacements between two
adjacent rings and the tangential displacements between
498 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
Fig. 12. Measurement system of Liu et al. (2002).
two adjacent segments within the ring. A total of 200 de-
vices, consisting of 146 VWSGs, 28 pressure cells and 18
LVDTs were installed on the two rings, out of which
only five were found to be spoilt during construction.
Before starting the field monitoring, the strains were cal-
ibrated against axial force, tangential force and tangen-
tial bending moment of the lining through laboratory
tests. Monitoring was continuously performed between
1996 and 1999. During this period, the researchers re-
ported two major problems – (i) damage to the data
cables during construction; and (ii) accumulation of
water behind the tail of the tunnel boring machine
(TBM), causing damage to several connectors.
Following major observations made by the research-
ers after evaluating the measurements are worth noting:
(i) The assembly process itself led to local stresses in
the tunnel lining, of magnitude comparable to
those induced by the external loads. In addition,
the stress distribution was highly non-uniform.
Hence, both the assumptions made for prediction
proved incorrect.
(ii) The predictions made by the FEM and the analyt-
ical models proved to underestimate the lining
stresses. In addition, the calibration of strain
against bending moment and tunnel force was
invalid due to the reasons stated in (i).
(iii) Large displacements were observed at the segment
joints. The number of LVDTs instrumented was
therefore insufficient. The researchers recom-
mended that all the joint segments should be
instrumented with LVDTs. In addition, due to
non-uniform stress distribution, strain gauges also
proved insufficient in number.
(iv) Due to different thermal expansion coefficients of
mercury and concrete, strong temperature depen-
dence of the measured pressure was observed. This
produced a fake load effect. The VWSG data, on
the other hand, were corrected against temperature.
Still, mild temperature dependence was observed
due to partially restraining end conditions.
(v) Since stress paths may criss–cross in the ring joints,
Bakker and co-workers recommended that at least
two or three adjacent rings should be monitored. In
addition, monitoring should preferably start right
from the assembling stage itself so that the assem-
bly stresses could also be carefully monitored.
Bakker and co-workers implemented some of these
lessons during monitoring of the Botek Railway tunnel.
From this, they concluded that the process of assem-
bling the lining and the subsequent 24 h are the most sig-
nificant ones for the development of strains. However,
they noted that strain measurements provided only local
and not global information such as bending moments. It
was recommended that laser based measurement tech-
niques could provide a more direct assessment of the
global response. In addition, wireless data retrieval
could circumvent some of the problems faced by the
cable based data retrieval system. Hence, there is a need
to seriously consider the recommendations of these
researchers in future experiments involving tunnels,
which can ensure more useful information.
4. Conclusions
Once constructed, underground structures, such as
transportation tunnels, caverns and retaining walls are
rarely replaceable. Usually, critical regions in these
structures are inaccessible for visual inspections. In
addition, there are numerous considerations specific to
each underground structure, such as earth pressures,
ground movements due to construction, underground
formations and ground water fluctuations, quite often
difficult to predict accurately at the design stage and
very rarely monitored after the structure has been con-
structed. This paper presented a detailed review of the
current status and the importance of SHM for under-
ground structures, during construction as well as opera-
tion. An in-depth review of the various available sensor
technologies, and their pros and cons with regard to
 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
underground structures are also covered. The critical
nature of the underground structures as well as their
complex interactions and influences on the nearby
ground structures make a strong case for pursuing active
research and development in the area of SHM. Long-
term monitoring of the underground structures can go
a long way in ensuring greater safety as well as design
validation and optimisation, thereby ensuring a high
benefit–cost ratio.
At the present moment, SHM is not a codal require-
ment for underground structures. The problem is further
aggravated by the fact that there is no unique solution in
terms of instrumentation technology and monitoring
algorithms since each underground structure is unique
in itself. The harsh and rough environment of the under-
ground structures necessitates active research in the
development of more durable and robust sensors and
data retrieval systems. In particular, the emphasis
should be focused on the new generation ÔsmartÕ tech-
nology based sensor systems, such as the piezo-imped-
ance transducers, the FBG and the MEMS based
technologies. Development of wireless technology based
remote data retrieval systems should also be pursued.
In spite of so many challenges, any instrumentation of
the structure, however elementary, promises significant
information that could help better understand its behav-
iour as well as play an important role in the validation of
key design assumptions. Thus, the underground struc-
tures such as tunnels, caverns, mines, piles and anchored
walls are suitable candidates for channelling research
funds for developing appropriate monitoring systems.
References
Aktan, A.E., Helmicki, A.J., Hunt, V.J., 1998. Issues in health
monitoring for intelligent infrastructure. Smart Materials and
Structures 7, 674–692.
Aktan, A.E., Catbas, F.N., Grimmelsman, K.A., Tsikos, C.J., 2000.
Issues in infrastructure health monitoring for management. Journal
of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE 126, 711–724.
Ayres, J.W., Lalande, F., Chaudhry, Z., Rogers, C.A., 1998. Quali-
tative impedance-based health monitoring of civil infrastructures.
Smart Materials and Structures 7, 599–605.
Bakker, K.J., 2000. Soil retaining structures: development of models
for structural analysis. Ph.D. thesis, Delfts University of Technol-
ogy, Netherlands.
Batten, M., Boorman, R., Leiper, Q., 1999. Use of vibrating wire strain
gauges to measure loads in tubular steel props supporting deep
retaining walls. Proceeding, Institution of Civil Engineers, Geo-
technical Engineering 137, 3–13.
Bhalla, S., Soh, C.K., 2003. Structural impedance based damage
diagnosis by piezo-transducers. Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics 32, 1897–1916.
Bhalla, S., Soh, C.K., 2004a. High frequency piezoelectric signatures
for diagnosis of seismic/blast induced structural damages. NDT&E
International 37, 23–33.
Bhalla, S., Soh, C.K., 2004b. Structural health monitoring by piezo-
impedance transducers. Part I: Modeling. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, ASCE 17, 154–165.
499
Bhalla, S., Soh, C.K., 2004c. Structural health monitoring by piezo-
impedance transducers. Part II: Applications. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, ASCE 17, 166–175.
Boller, C., 2002. Structural health management of ageing aircraft and
other infrastructure. Monograph on Structural Health Monitoring,
Institute of Smart Structures and Systems (ISSS), Bangalore, pp. 1–
59.
Brownjohn, J.M.W., Moyo, P., Rizos, C., Chuan, T.S., 2003a.
Practical issues in using novel sensors in SHM of civil infrastruc-
ture: problems and solutions in implementation of GPS and fibre
optics. In: Proceedings, 4th International Workshop on Structural
Health Monitoring, Stanford University, CA, September 15–17,
pp. 499–506.
Brownjohn, J.M.W., Moyo, P., Omenzetter, P., Lu, Y., 2003b.
Assessment of highway bridge upgrading by dynamic testing and
finite-element model updating. Journal of Bridge Engineering,
ASCE 8, 499–506.
Coutts, D.R., Wang, J., Cai, J.G., 2001. Monitoring and analysis of
results for two strutted deep excavations using vibrating wire strain
gauges. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16, 87–92.
Dally, J.W., Riley, W.F., McConnell, K.G., 1984. Instrumentation for
Engineering Measurements. Wiley, New York.
Farrar, C.R., Jauregui, D.A., 1998. Comparative study of damage
identification algorithms applied to a bridge: I. Experiment. Smart
Materials and Structures 7, 704–719.
Goel, R.K., 2001. Status of tunnelling and underground construction
activities and technologies in India. Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology 16, 63–75.
Inaudi, D., Elamari, A., Pflug, L., Gisin, N., Breguet, J., Vurpillot, S.,
1994. Low-coherence deformation sensors for the monitoring of
civil engineering structures. Sensors and Actuators 44, 125–130.
Inaudi, D., Vulliet, L., Pflug, L., Vurpillot, S., Wyser, A., 1995. Low-
coherence sensors for the monitoring of underground works. In:
Proceeding, North American Conference on Smart Structures and
Materials, San Diego, vol. 2444, pp. 171–178.
Liang, C., Sun, F.P., Rogers, C.A., 1994. Coupled electro-mechanical
analysis of adaptive material systems – determination of the
actuator power consumption and system energy transfer. Journal
of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 5, 12–20.
Liu, J.-G., Hattenberger, C.S., Borm, G., 2002. Dynamic strain
measurement with a fibre Bragg grating sensor system. Measure-
ment 32, 151–161.
Magnus, R.R., Teh, C.I., Lau, J.M., 2005. Interim report of the
Committee of Inquiry into the incident at the MRT Circle Line
Worksite that led to the collapse of Nicoll Highway on 20 April
2004, Singapore. Available from: <http://www.mom.gov.sg/MOM/
CDA>.
Moyo, P., 2002. Structural performance monitoring and health
assessment of highway bridges. Ph.D. Thesis, Nanyang Techno-
logical University, Singapore.
Naidu, A.S.K., Soh, C.K., 2004. Damage severity and propagation
characterization with admittance signatures of piezo transducers.
Smart Materials and Structures 13, 393–403.
Ng, S.L., Tjin, S.C., Xie, T.Q., Soo, K.T., 1998. Side-projected fiber-
optic velocity sensors. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 10, 249–
251.
van Oosterhout, G.P.C., 2003. Recent Dutch experiences in developing
structural monitoring systems for shield driven tunnels. HERON
48, 65–78.
Pandey, A.K., Biswas, M., 1994. Damage detection in structures using
changes in flexibility. Journal of Sound and Vibration 169, 3–17.
Park, G., Cudney, H.H., Inman, D.J., 2000. Impedance-based health
monitoring of civil structural components. Journal of Infrastruc-
ture Systems, ASCE 6, 153–160.
Park, G., Sohn, H., Farrar, C.R., Inman, D.J., 2003. Overview of
piezoelectric impedance-based health monitoring and path for-
ward. The Shock and Vibration Digest 35, 451–463.
500 S. Bhalla et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 20 (2005) 487–500
Peairs, D.M., Park, G., Inman, D.J., 2004. Improving accessibility
of the impedance-based structural health monitoring method.
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 15, 129–
139.
Sanayei, M., Saletnik, M.J., 1996. Parameter estimation of structures
from static strain measurements. I: Formulation. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 122, 555–562.
Sharma, J.S., Hefny, A.M., Zhao, J., Chan, C.W., 2001. Effect of large
excavation on deformation of adjacent MRT tunnels. Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology 16, 93–98.
Soh, C.K., Bhalla, S., in press. Calibration of piezo-impedance
transducers for strength prediction and damage assessment of
concrete. Smart Materials and Structures, in press.
Soh, C.K., Tseng, K.K.H., Bhalla, S., Gupta, A., 2000. Performance of
smart piezoceramic patches in health monitoring of a RC Bridge.
Smart Materials and Structures 9, 533–542.
Storoy, H., Saether, J., Johannessen, K., 1997. Fiber optic condition
monitoring during a full scale destructive bridge test. Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 8, 633–643.
Sun, F.P., Chaudhry, Z., Rogers, C.A., Majmundar, M., Liang, C.,
1995. Automated real-time structure health monitoring via signa-
ture pattern recognition. In: Proceedings, SPIE Conference on
Smart Structures and Materials, San Diego, CA, February 27–
March 1, vol. 2443, pp. 236–247.
Tjin, S.C., Hao, J.Z., Lam, Y.Z., Ho, Y.C., Ng, B.K., 2001. A pressure
sensor using fiber Bragg grating. Fiber and Integrated Optics 20,
59–69.
Tjin, S.C., Rupali, S., Moyo, P., Brownjohn, J.M.W., Ngo, N.Q.,
2002. Application of fibre Bragg grating based sensors for civil
infrastructure health monitoring. In: Proceedings, ISSS-SPIE
International Conference on Smart Materials, Structures and
Systems, Bangalore, 12–14 December, pp. 683–690.
Xu, J.F., Yang, Y.W., Soh, C.K., 2004. EM impedance-based
structural health monitoring with evolutionary programming.
Journal of Aerospace Engineering, ASCE 17 (4), 182–193.
Yang, Y.W., Xu, J.F., Soh, C.K., 2005. A generic impedance-based
model for structure–PZT interacting system. Journal of Aerospace
Engineering, ASCE 18 (2), 93–101.
Zhao, J., 2003. The Underground Science City. International Tunnel-
ling Association, http://www.ita-aites.org/cms/335.html.
Zhao, J., Cai, J.G., Tunbridge, L., Song, H.W., Zhang, X.H., Zhao,
X.B., 2002. Results of rock cavern monitoring and assessment of
cavern stability. Technical Report for NTU-DSTA Joint R&D
Project on instrumentation and monitoring of rock caverns during
construction and operation.
Zhao, J., Liu, Q., Lee, K.W., Choa, V., Teh, C.I., 1999. Underground
cavern development in the Jurong sedimentary rock formation.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 14, 449–459.