SULPHURIC ACID

(H4SO4)
USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and
potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily absorbed by
plant.
2. The other uses of sulphuric acid are:
• To manufacture detergent
• To manufacture synthetic fibres (a type of polymer)
• To manufacture paint pigment
• As an electrolyte in lead acid accumulators
• To remove the metal oxide from metal surfaces before electroplating

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though Contact process

2. The raw materials used in the Contact process are sulphur, air and water.
3. The Contact process contain three stage

Stage 1 Production of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2 by burning of sulphur with air

S + O2  SO2

Stage 2 Conversation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide, SO3 in the following

conditions:
a) Temperature:450-500°C
b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

2SO2 + O2  2SO3

Stage 3 Two processes are involved here:

i. Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to produce oleum, H 2S2O7,
a viscous liquid

SO3 + H2SO4  H2S2O7

ii. Oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid

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 H2S2O7 + H2O  2H2SO4
4. Figure below shows the three stages in the making of sulphuric acid by the Contact
process in industry

The Contact Process

Sulphur Oxygen

In the converter

S + O2  SO2 2SO + O2 2SO3

Temperature: 450-500°C
Unreacted
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
2% SO2 is
Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide
Oxygen flowed back
to converter
together with
oxygen
SO2 + H2SO4  H2S2O7
H2S2O7 + H2O  2H2SO4

Outline of Contact process

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 SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-products of Contact process. It is a colourless and

poisonous gas with a very pungent smell.
2. It is a poisonous and acidic gas that can cause environmental pollution. Inhaling
sulphur dioxide can cause lung diseases.
3. Sulphur dioxide gas dissolves in atmospheric water to form sulphurous acid, H2SO3 and
sulphuric acid, H2SO4. The presence of these acids in rain water causes acid rain.
4. The effects of acid rain are as follows:
• Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures
• Destroys trees and plants in forests
• Makes the soil acidic and hence unsuitable for growth of plants
• Makes the water in lakes and rivers acidic and may destroy aquatic life

Acid rain and environmental pollution

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 AMMONIA AND
ITS SALTS
(NH3)
USES OF AMMONIA
1. It is a very important compound in the industry.
2. The uses are:
i. In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate,
ammonia nitric, ammonia phosphate and urea.
ii. As a cooling agent in refrigerators
iii. To make nitric acid (in the Ostwald process)
iv. To make explosives (from nitric acid)
v. To prevent the coagulation of latex (keep latex in the liquid form)
vi. To produce ammonium chloride which is used as the electrolyte in dry cells

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:

i. It colourless and has a pungent odour.
ii. It dissolves in water to produce a weak alkali
iii. It less dense then air.

2. Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form white fumes of ammonium
chloride (this is used as a test for ammonia gas)

NH3 + HCl  NH4Cl

3. Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in neutralization to produce
salts. For example:

2NH3 + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4

4. Aqueous solutions of ammonia react with metal ions (except Na+ ion, K+ ion and Ca+
ion) to produce precipitate of metal hydroxides.

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MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY

1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the Haber process

2. Nitrogen gas used is obtained form the fractional distillation of liquid air.
3. Hydrogen gas used is obtained from the reaction between steam and heated coke or
natural gas.
4. In the Haber process, one mole of nitrogen gas and three moles of hydrogen gas react to
produce ammonia gas in the following conditions:
i. Temperature: 450-500°C
ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings

N2 + 3H2  2NH3

5. The ammonia product is then cooled down as liquid. The unreacted nitrogen gas and
hydrogen gas are pumped back to the catalytic column to be reacted again

The Haber Process

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 Nitrogen Hydrogen

N2 and H2 are mixed in the proportion of

1:3 In the reactor chamber Unreacted N2 and
N2 + 3H2  2NH In cooling chamber H2 gases
3

Temperature: 450-500°C
Liquid
Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
Catalyst used: ammonia
Iron fillings
Outline Of Habert process

AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS

1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary
for growth and cell repair.
2. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is
abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from
soil through their roots.
3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt
which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.

ALLOYS
PURPOSE OF MAKING ALLOYS

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 1. An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in
which the major component is a metal.
2. Pure metals are weak and soft. This is because:
• A pure metal contains atom of the same size arranged in a regular and orderly
arrangement
• The orderly arrangement of atoms enables the layers of atoms to slide over each
other easily when an external force is applied on them. This makes the metal ductile
(metals can be drawn to form long wires)
• There exist empty spaces in the structures of pure metals. When hammered or
pressed, groups of metal atoms may glide into new positions in these empty spaces.
This makes the metals malleable (metal can be made into different shapes or
pressed into thin sheets)
3. In the process of alloying, foreign elements are added to molten metal. When
hardened, these atoms of foreign elements replace the positions of some of the original
metal atoms.
4. In an alloy, these atoms of foreign elements disrupt the orderly arrangement of the
metal atoms and also fill up any empty spaces in the metal crystal structure
5. Hence, the layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over each other easily.
6. This makes the alloy harder and stronger, less ductile and less malleable than pure
metals.
7. There are three aims of alloying a pure metal:
• To increase the hardness and strength of a metal
• To prevent corrosion or rusting
• To improve the appearance of the metal surfaces, with a better finish and lustre
Layer of atom slide

Alloy Composition Properties Uses

High carbon steel 99% iron Strong, hard and • Making of cutting
Force 1% carbon high wear resistance tools, hammers and
chisels
Stainless steel 80.6% iron Do not rust and • Making of surgical
0.4% carbon Metals tarnish, strong and
are ductile instrument, knives
18%chromium durable forks and spoons
1% nickel
Brass 70% copper Hard, do not rust, • Making of
30% zinc bright appearance ornaments,
electrical wiring
and plug.
Bronze 90% copper Hard, do not corrode • For casting bells,
10% tin easily and durable medals, The shape of the
swords
Force metal change
and statues
Pewter 90% tin Ductile and • Making of
2.5% copper malleable, white ornaments,
0.5% antimony silvery appearance souvenirs and

Matel are malleable 7

 mugs
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light, strong and • Making part of
4% copper durable aircrafts and racing
1%magnesium cars
Cupronickel 75%copper Attractive, silvery • Making of silver
25%nickel appearance, hard and coins
tough
Composition, properties and uses of alloys

The formation of alloy

SYNTHETIC
POLYMERS
THE MEANING OF POLYMERS

1. Polymers are large molecules that consist of a large number of small identical or similar
units joined together repeatedly are called polymer.
2. The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer.
3. Polymerization is the chemical process by which the monomers are joined together to
form a big molecule known as a polymer.

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4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural polymers are
found in plant and in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose,
protein and rubber.
5. Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional
polymerisation.
6. Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerisation.

Some Common Addition Polymers

Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties Uses
Polyethylene
ethylene film wrap,
low density –(CH2-CH2)n– soft, waxy solid
CH2=CH2 plastic bags
(LDPE)
Polyethylene electrical
ethylene rigid, translucent
high density –(CH2-CH2)n– insulation
CH2=CH2 solid
(HDPE) bottles, toys
atactic: soft, elastic
Polypropylene similar to LDPE
–[CH2- propylene solid
(PP) different carpet,
CH(CH3)]n– CH2=CHCH3 isotactic: hard,
grades upholstery
strong solid
Poly(vinyl
–(CH2- vinyl chloride pipes, siding,
chloride) strong rigid solid
CHCl)n– CH2=CHCl flooring
(PVC)
Poly(vinylidene vinylidene
–(CH2- dense, high-melting
chloride) chloride seat covers, films
CCl2)n– solid
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2
hard, rigid, clear
toys, cabinets
Polystyrene –[CH2- styrene solid
packaging
(PS) CH(C6H5)]n– CH2=CHC6H5 soluble in organic
(foamed)
solvents
Polyacrylonitrile high-melting solid
–(CH2- acrylonitrile rugs, blankets
(PAN, Orlon, soluble in organic
CHCN)n– CH2=CHCN clothing
Acrilan) solvents
non-stick
Polytetrafluoroeth tetrafluoroethyl
resistant, smooth surfaces
ylene –(CF2-CF2)n– ene
solid electrical
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2
insulation
Poly(methyl methyl
–[CH2- lighting covers,
methacrylate) methacrylate hard, transparent
C(CH3)CO2C signs
(PMMA, Lucite, CH2=C(CH3)C solid
H3]n– skylights
Plexiglas) O2CH3

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 –(CH2- vinyl acetate
Poly(vinyl acetate) latex paints,
CHOCOCH3) CH2=CHOCOC soft, sticky solid
(PVAc) adhesives
n– H3
–[CH2- isoprene requires
cis-Polyisoprene
CH=C(CH3)- CH2=CH- soft, sticky solid vulcanization
natural rubber
CH2]n– C(CH3)=CH2 for practical use
Polychloroprene –[CH2- chloroprene
tough, rubbery synthetic rubber
(cis + trans) CH=CCl- CH2=CH-
solid oil resistant
(Neoprene) CH2]n– CCl=CH2
Uses of synthetic polymers

ISSUES OF THE USE OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

1. Synthetic polymers have been used widely to replace natural materials because of the
following advantages:
a. Cheap, light-weight and translucent.
b. Easily coloured, easily moulded and shaped.
c. Non-corrosive, waterproof and good insulator.
d. Durable and long lasting because they are resistant to decay, rusting and
chemical attacks.
2. The use of synthetic polymer, however results in environmental pollution problems
from the disposal of synthetic polymers because:
a. Burning of polymers release harmful gases that cause air pollution.
b. Synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable (cannot be decomposed by bacteria or
other microorganisms).
c. Plastic containers become breeding places for mosquitoes.
d. Plastic items block drains and rivers, causing flash floods.
e. Small plastics swallowed by aquatic animals cause death.

3. Petroleum, the main source of raw materials for the making of synthetic polymers is a
non-renewable source
4. Methods to overcome these problems of polymers are:
• Reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic polymers
• Make biodegradable polymers

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 GLASS AND
CERAMICS
THE MEANING OF GLASS AND CERAMICS

1. The main component of both glass and ceramics is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2
2. Both glass and ceramic have the same following properties:
a. Hard but brittle.
b. Poor conductors of heat and electricity
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Inert towards chemicals
e. Easy to maintain.
3. The uses of glass and ceramics also depends on their differences as follows:
• Glass is transparent whereas ceramic opaque
• Ceramic has a higher melting point than glass.
4. The uses of glass depend on the composition and properties as shown below.

Type of glass Composition Properties Uses

Fused glass SiO2: 100% • Transparent • Lens
• High melting point • Telescope mirrors
• Good heat • Laboratory
insulator apparatus
Soda-lime glass SiO2: 75% • Low melting point, • Drinking glass,
Na2O:15% easily molded into bottles
CaO: 9% desired shape and • Electric bulbs
Other:1% size • Window glass
• Low resistant to
chemical attacks
• Brittle
Borosilicate glass SiO2: 78% • Resistant chemical • Cooking utensils
B2O3: 12% attack and durable • Laboratory
Na2O: 5% • High melting point glassware such as
CaO: 3% • Good insulator to conical flaks and
Al2O3:2% heat boiling tube
Lead crystal glass SiO2: 70% • High refractive • Lenses and prisms
(flint glass) Pbo/PbO2:20% index • Decorative
Na2O: 10% • High density glassware and art
• Attractive object
glittering • Imation jewellery

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 appearance

5. Ceramics are made from clay, sand and feldspar. Clay consists of aluminosilicate. An
example of clay is kaoline.
6. Some uses of ceramics in daily life are shown below.

Examples Uses

Bricks, tiles and cement As building materials

Porcelain Materials for vases, plates, bowls

Insulators in toasters and irons, spark plugs in To make insulating parts in electrical
car engines appliances

Microchips To make microchips in computers, radios and

televisions

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 Composite
materials
THE MEANING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1. A composite material is a structural material formed by combining two or more

materials with different physical properties producing a complex mixture.
2. A composite material has more superior properties than the original components used
to make up the composite material.
3. Composite materials are harder, stronger and lighter, more resistant to heat and
corrosion compared to their original components. Composite materials are also made
for specific purposes.
4. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforced concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass

REINFORCES CONCRETE

1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to maintain. It is

more important construction materials.
2. Steel is hard with high tensile strength but expensive and can corrode.
3. The reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel.

SUPERCONDUCTOR

1. Metal such as copper and aluminum are good conductors of electricity, but 20% of the
electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.
2. Superconductors are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at a
particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.

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3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitate a
magnet. Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at
about 552 km/h).
4. Superconductors are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer.
Superconductors also play an important role in high speed data processing in internet
communication.

FIBRE OPTIC

1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave.
2. Fibre optic is used in
a. Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fibre optic cables.
b. Domestic cable television network
c. Closed circuit television security system.
3. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instruments which
enable the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery.

FIBRE GLASS

1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractory
rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.
2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but
is brittle.
3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fibre glass reinforces
plastic is formed.
4. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is
a. Extremely strong
b. Light weigh
c. Resistant to fire and water
d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted

PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS

1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and a small
amount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glass
is formed.
2. The photochromic glass has special properties. It darkens when exposed to strong
sunlight or ultraviolet.
3. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.

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