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According to Newton, space (length), time and mass are absolute, i.e. They remain the same irrespective of the observers. Net force is determined by vector addition in one dimension: by addition of directed numbers. In two dimensions: by placing vectors head to tail or by resolving each vector into two perpendicular components.
According to Newton, space (length), time and mass are absolute, i.e. They remain the same irrespective of the observers. Net force is determined by vector addition in one dimension: by addition of directed numbers. In two dimensions: by placing vectors head to tail or by resolving each vector into two perpendicular components.
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According to Newton, space (length), time and mass are absolute, i.e. They remain the same irrespective of the observers. Net force is determined by vector addition in one dimension: by addition of directed numbers. In two dimensions: by placing vectors head to tail or by resolving each vector into two perpendicular components.
Hak Cipta:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Format Tersedia
Unduh sebagai PDF, TXT atau baca online dari Scribd
Roller coaster ride, object mass m: Universal gravitational field: g = GM/r2
At speed v 0 when reaction R = 0 at the highest point.
M g Highest mg = mv 0 2 / r . Lowest R − mg = mv 2 / r . r Physics unit 3 summary sheets (09-12) At speed > v 0 at the highest point. ro Copyright 2009 itute.com ro r 2 2 Free download & print from www.itute.com Highest R + mg = mv / r . Lowest R − mg = mv / r Gravitational force between any two objects: Do not reproduce by other means. At speed < v 0 at the highest point. Highest M1 M2 r F = GM1M2/r2 According to Newton, space (length), time and mass − R + mg = mv 2 / r . Lowest R − mg = mv 2 / r . are absolute, i.e. they remain the same irrespective Projectile motion: Two-dimensional motion under a of the observers. constant force (force of gravity or weight). Planetary and satellite motions: Planets around the Newton’s first law: Objects have inertia, i.e. a v sun move in its gravitational field; ∴a = g, they are stationary object remains stationary, or a moving in free fall (also true for satellites around the earth), g object keeps on moving at the same speed in the v 2 GM 4π 2 r GM same direction, if there is no net force acting on it. i.e. = 2 or = 2 , hence Newton’s second law: Acceleration of an object is r r T2 r Horizontal component of velocity vector remains directly proportional to and in the same direction as r3 GM the net force on it, and inversely proportional to its constant throughout motion. Vertical component of v 2 r = GM (constant) or = (constant). velocity vector is affected by gravity and has T2 4π 2 mass. a = Fnet /m. Newton’s third law: When object constant acceleration g downwards. Let V be the A exerts a force on object B, B exerts a force of the ra3 rb3 speed of projection at angle θ to the horizontal. ∴ v a2 ra = v b2 rb or = . same magnitude in the opposite direction on A . Ta2 Tb2 For hori. comp: a = 0, v = u = Vcosθ, s =ut. Net force is determined by vector addition. In one For vert. comp: the five equations for rectilinear dimension: by addition of directed numbers. In two motions under constant acceleration are applicable, Electric current through a component is measured dimensions: by placing vectors head to tail or by v = u + at, s = ½(u + v)t, s = ut + ½at2, s = vt – with an ammeter connected in series with it. resolving each vector into two perpendicular components. E.g. net force on an object at rest (or ½at2, v2 = u2 + 2as, where u = Vsinθ is the initial Q sliding at const speed) on an inclined plane is zero. velocity, v final vel, a = –g acceleration, s I = , Q = It . Electric potential V (v) at a point displacement from the initial position at time t. t Up is chosen as +ve. is the amount of electric potential energy E (J) N N Impulse = change in momentum, I = ∆p, possessed by each unit of charge at that point. F N F F∆t = mv – mu. Conservation of momentum: In V = E / Q , E = VQ . Electric potential difference, or collisions between objects, total momentum before = also denoted as V and measured in v, is the total momentum during = total momentum after difference in potential between two points. When W W F collision, m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2. current flows from high to low potential, electric When one object gains momentum, the other loses potential energy of the charges changes to other Uniform (constant speed v) circular motion: momentum by the same amount, the total remains forms of energy. Amount of energy change is also 1 2πr constant. ∆p2 = –∆p1, i.e. I2 = –I1. f = , v= or 2πrf , direction of motion is given by E = VQ , where V is the potential T T Work is done by a system on another system during difference measured with a voltmeter connected to given by velocity vector that is tangential to the energy transfer in which the former exerts a force on the two points. v2 the latter. W = Fs = ∆E. E = VQ = VIt , E = Pt , power P = VI . circular path; magnitude of acceleration is a = Change in kinetic energy of an object results from r Resistance R of a conductor is a measure of the work done by net force, W = ∆EK , ability of the conductor to resist the flow of electric 4π 2 r i.e. Fnet s = ½mv2 – ½mu2. or a = or a = 4π 2 rf 2 , and direction of V T2 When an object moves in a gravitational field, e.g. in current and is defined as the ratio of V to I. R = . projectile motion, kinetic energy changes to I acceleration is always towards the centre of circle, ∴centripetal acceleration. Both velocity and gravitational potential energy and vice versa. The Ohm’s law states that for some conductors the acceleration in uniform circular motion are not total energy remains constant during its flight. resistance stays constant when potential difference EK1 + EP1 = EK2 + EP2. and current vary. Conductors that obey Ohm’s law constant because their directions are changing continuously. They are always perpendicular to each At earth’s surface, EP = mgh, ∆EP = mgh2 – mgh1. If are called ohmic conductors (resistors) and have other. A net force towards the centre of the circle an object moves a long distance away from (or the following I-V characteristics. (centripetal force) is required to keep an object in towards) the earth, gravitational field cannot be I uniform circular motion, F = ma . considered constant, ∆EP is given by area under force-distance graph or field-distance graph: A straight line Moving around a banked track: 3 forces (normal F g through the origin. force, weight, friction force) act on vehicle. Resolve 0 V normal & friction forces into vertical & horizontal ∆EP = area ∆EP Components connected in series components. Sum of vertical force components = 0; sum of horizontal force components = ma . = area × mass I = I1 = I 2 = I 3 = ..... , V AB = V1 + V2 + V3 + ..... , Maximum speed: when friction reaches maximum. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... remains constant if Design speed: when friction = 0, v = gr tan θ , x x components are ohmic resistors. Also where θ is the banking angle. V Hooke’s law: F = kx. When an object interacts with RT = AB . A B Conical pendulum: 2 forces (tension, weight) act on a spring that obeys Hooke’s law, kinetic energy is I mass. Resolve normal & friction forces into vert. & changed to elastic potential energy and vice versa. Components connected in parallel hori. components. Sum of vert. force comp = 0; sum The total energy remains constant during the V AB = V1 = V2 = V3 = ..... of hori. force components = ma . interaction. EK1 + EP1 = EK2 + EP2 where EP = ½kx2. I = I A = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + ..... = I B Non-uniform circular motion: Besides the Area under force-distance graph gives ∆EP centripetal force, a tangential force is also required to = ½k(x2)2 – ½k(x1)2. F 1 speed up or to slow down the object. Hence the net m RT = A B 1 1 1 force and the acceleration are no longer towards the + + + ..... R1 R2 R3 centre of the circular motion. F x x1 x2 x remains constant for ohmic resistors. Speeding Elastic collision between objects: the total kinetic V Also RT = AB . F, a up energy of objects before and after collision remains I the same. During collision some kinetic energy is Power in series and parallel circuits: Total power Slowing changed to elastic potential energy and all elastic consumption in parallel or series connection is the F, a down potential energy is changed back to kinetic energy at sum of the individual power of components. the end of collision. For inelastic collision, total PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... , kinetic energy after collision is less than total before, Vertical circular motions: because some kinetic energy is changed to other V AB 2 Object mass m attached to string, tension T: forms of energy as well, such as sound, heat and or PT = V AB I , PT = , PT = I 2 RT . RT Highest T + mg = mv 2 / r . Lowest T − mg = mv 2 / r . energy in deformation of material. Voltage dividers A series connection of two or more Voltage gain = ∆v o / ∆v i , i.e. gradient of linear When loading continues, eventually it reaches the resistors forms a voltage divider. The supply voltage point of breaking. The maximum stress a material section of voltage-transfer characteristic. Negative to the series connection is divided into voltages in can withstand before breaking is called the tensile value for inverting, positive for non-inverting. the same ratio as the resistances of the components. (or compressive) strength of the material. If input signal voltage exceeds the max, clipping to V1 R Strain energy is the amount of potential energy = 1 , the output signal occurs. V2 R2 stored in the loaded material. It is estimated from area under force-extension (compression) graph. R1 Alternatively, strain energy (J) = V1 = ×V , V R1 V1 R1 + R2 volume of material (m3) × area under σ-ε graph. Some materials fracture at the linear section or just R2 V2 = ×V . R2 V2 past the elastic limit, e.g. glass, ceramics. They are R1 + R2 classified as brittle. If a material fractures after it is Structure is in compression (tension) when pushed well past the elastic limit and has undergone plastic (pulled) at the two ends. Compression and tension deformation, it is called ductile material, e.g. Non-ohmic conductors: Diodes, thermistors, LDR, can co-exist within a structure, e.g. a cantilevered aluminium, steel. photodiodes and LED. beam bends under its own weight. Tough material is ductile and absorbs large amount A diode is an electronic device that can be used to control current and voltage. It conducts when it is of strain energy before it fractures, e.g. polyethylene. Tension Total area under the stress-strain graph gives good forward biased and the current drops to practically Wall indication of toughness when comparing materials. zero when it is reverse biased. Compression Composite materials are made from two or more + – Forward bias, R → 0 . component materials that can be separated A beam supported at its two ends, i.e. a simply mechanically, e.g. clay with added straw. – + Reverse bias, R → ∞ . supported beam, bends under its own weight. Concrete is weak under tension (but strong in Compression compression) because of the existence of small A thermistor is an electronic device whose cracks. These cracks propagate easily when the resistance varies with temperature. material is stretched. Concrete can be strengthened Transducers are devices that change other forms of Tension by placing steel rods or mesh in it when it is poured. energy into electrical energy and vice versa. It is called reinforced concrete and is considered as Photonic transducers change light into electrical A truss, a network of beams joined together in rigid a composite material. Another way to strengthen energy and vice versa. The following devices are triangles, supporting a load. concrete is to keep it in compression all the time so photonic transducers. c that cracks cannot propagate. This is done by A light dependent resistor (LDR) is an electronic c t t c keeping the steel rods in tension while the concrete is device whose resistance changes with the intensity of poured, and allowed to dry before the tension is light it is exposed to. released. The contraction of the rods after releasing t t A photodiode is a diode whose conduction changes the tension compresses the concrete. The rods have a with illuminating light intensity when it is reverse very rugged surface texture to prevent slipping after Shear refers to the sliding of a layer over another the tension is released. This strengthened concrete is biased and it is said to be in photoconductive mode. layer in a structure. It may occur when a structure called pre-stressed concrete. Concrete can also be When light intensity increases, the number of free experiences a sideways or twisting force. strengthened by compression after it is set. This electrons in the photodiode increases, and reverse biased current (called photocurrent) increases. requires the steel rods to be smooth to slip through A light emitting diode (LED) emits light when it is the dry concrete when stretched and anchored at the forward biased. Light intensity increases with ends of the concrete. This strengthened concrete is increasing forward current. called post-stressed concrete. Tension in a beam of non uniform cross-section is To ensure safety a structure is built to withstand a Transmission of information using cables: the same along the entire length, which is equal to load that is many times what it actually carries. The Analogue electrical signals in metal conductor can the pulling force F, but stress σ which is defined as number of times is called the factor of safety. In be changed to intensity modulated light signals (to be sent through an optical fibre) by means of an F general industrial practice it is between 3 and 10. σ = , where A is the cross-sectional area, is electrical-optical converter, e.g. a laser diode. A A laser diode works like a LED with a much faster Factor of safety (for brittle materials) = 1 response. At the other end of the optical fibre, different at different positions. Since σ ∝ , tensile(compressive) strength A . Factor of safety (for intensity modulated light signals are changed back to therefore stress is higher at the narrower section average.stress electrical signals by an optical-electrical converter, where fracture is most likely to occur. When a e.g. a photodiode. elastic. lim it material is loaded (either in tension or compression) ductile materials) = . Light intensity modulation: Changing the intensity average.stress its length changes. The fractional or percentage of the carrier light wave to replicate the amplitude change in length is called strain. It is defined as variation of the information signal so that the signal Density Y’s Elastic. Tensile Compre. may propagate more efficiently. ∆l Material (gcm-3) modul. Limit Strength Strength ε= , where l is the length of the material (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) l Cast iron 8 - 200 200 650 Carrier Steel 8 200 450 600 600 and ∆l is the change in length. Aluminium 3 80 240 300 - wave Linear relationship exists between stress and strain alloy Concrete 4 18 4 4 20 for all materials under ‘small’ tensile or Glass 4 70 100 100 - compressive stress, i.e. σ = Yε , Y is a constant Wood (pine) 0.5 15 35 40 35 Amplitude Polyethylene 1 2 25 35 - called Young’s modulus. It is a measure of modulated Cast iron: For building iron arch bridges or similar stiffness of the material and its unit is Nm-2 (or Pa). carrier structures. Steel: Good for structures such as Different materials have different Y values. The wave buildings where you do not want the structure to gradient of σ -ε graph is the value of Y. change shape under stress (such as wind stress and σ weight stress). Aluminium alloy: For making window A is stiffer than B A B and door frames. Concrete: For making slabs and Modulated shown by the gradients panels in buildings. Glass: For windows, doors and intensity of the lines. ε enclosures. Wood: For building house frames. of carrier YA In Hooke’s Law F = kx, k = . Structure in a state of balance is said to be in Demodulation: The separation of the information l equilibrium and the line of force of gravity passes signal from the carrier wave. Elastic material has the same σ-ε graph when stress through the base of structure. If structure is also at Voltage amplifiers: Voltage-transfer characteristic is applied (loading) or removed (unloading). The rest, it is in static equilibrium. of a real (practical) inverted amplifier. material deforms and returns to its original shape. Torque τ = rF has turning effect on a structure. It is vo This is true only when applied stress is below certain defined as product of force F on structure and limiting stress called elastic limit of the material. perpendicular distance r of line of force of F from a Max output When stress is below the elastic limit, material chosen convenient point. The two conditions for a shows elastic behaviour, i.e. it returns to its original structure to remain in static equilibrium are: Fnet = 0, 0 vi shape. Above the elastic limit, material changes its shape permanently, plastic behaviour. Permanent τnet = 0. In 2-D situations, first equation is split into x Max input (peak-to-peak with no clipping of output) and y components: Fx,net = 0, Fy,net = 0. change in shape is called plastic deformation.