Pyramidal Parametrics

Lance W i l l i a m s

Computer Graphics Laboratory

New York Institute of T e c h n o l o g y
Old Westbury, N e w York

Abstract
~. Pyramidal Data S t r u c t u r e s
The m a p p i n g of images onto surfaces
may s u b s t a n t i a l l y increase the r e a l i s m and Pyramidal data structures may be
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t of computer-generated based on various subdivisions: binary
imagery. The p r o j e c t i o n of a flat source trees, quad trees, oct trees, or n-
image onto a curved surface may involve dimensional h i e r a r c h i e s [17]. The common
sampling difficulties, however, w h i c h are feature o f these s t r u c t u r e s is a succes-
c o m p o u n d e d as the view of the surface sion of levels w h i c h v a r y the r e s o l u t i o n
changes. As the p r o j e c t e d scale of the at w h i c h the data is represented.
surface increases, interpolation between
the original samples of the source image The decomposition of an image by
is necessary; as the scale is reduced, two-dimensional binary s u b d i v i s i o n was a
approximation of m u l t i p l e samples in the p i o n e e r i n g s t r a t e g y in computer graphics
source is required. Thus a constantly for visible surface d e t e r m i n a t i o n [15].
c h a n g i n g sampling w i n d o w of v i e w - d e p e n d e n t The a p p r o a c h was e s s e n t i a l l y a synthesis-
shape must t r a v e r s e the source image. by-analysis: the image plane was subdi-
vided into quadrants recursively until
To reduce the c o m p u t a t i o n implied by analysis of a s u b s e c t i o n showed that sur-
these requirements, a set o f p r e f i l t e r e d face o r d e r i n g was s u f f i c i e n t l y simple to
source images may be created. This permit rendering. Such s u b d i v i s i o n and
approach can be applied to particular analysis has b e e n s u b s e q u e n t l y adopted to
advantage in animation, where a large generate spatial data structures [5],
number of frames using the same source w h i c h h a v e been used to represent images
image must be generated. This paper [9] both for p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n [13] and
advances a "pyramidal parametric" pre- for t r a n s m i s s i o n [i0], [14]. In the field
filtering and sampling geometry which of c o m p u t e r graphics, such data s t r u c t u r e s
minimizes aliasing effects and assures have been a d o p t e d for texture m a p p i n g [4],
continuity within and between target [16], and g e n e r a l i z e d to r e p r e s e n t objects
images. in space [Ii].

A l t h o u g h the m a p p i n g of texture onto The a p p l i c a t i o n of p y r a m i d a l data to

surfaces is an e x c e l l e n t example of the image storage and t r a n s m i s s i o n m a y p e r m i t
process and p r o v i d e d the o r i g i n a l motiva- s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p r e s s i o n of the data to be
tion for its development, pyramidal stored or transmitted. This is so b e c a u s e
p a r a m e t r i c data s t r u c t u r e s admit of w i d e r h i g h l y d e t a i l e d features m a y be localized
application. The aliasing of not o n l y within an o t h e r w i s e l o w - f r e q u e n c y image,
surface texture, but also highlights and p e r m i t t i n g the sampling rate to be reduced
even the surface representations them- for large sections of the image. Besides
selves, may be minimized by pyramidal permitting bandwidth compression, the
p a r a m e t r i c means. representation orders data in such a w a y
that the general c h a r a c t e r of images may
General Terms: Algorithms. be recalled or transmitted before the
specific details.
Keywords and Phrases: Antialiasing,
Illumination Models, Modeling, P y r a m i d a l Pattern recognition and classifica-
Data Structures, R e f l e c t a n c e Mapping, Tex- tion often require the c o m p a r i s o n of a
ture Mapping, V i s i b l e S u r f a c e Algorithms. c a n d i d a t e image a g a i n s t a set of c a n o n i c a l
patterns. This is an operation the
C R Categories: 1.3.3 [Computer Graphics]: expense of w h i c h i n c r e a s e s as the square
Picture/Image Generation--~ algo- of the resolution at which it is per-
rithms; 1.3.5 [Computer G r a p h l c ~ : Compu- formed. The use of p y r a m i d a l data struc-
tational Geometry and Object Modeling-- tures in p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n and c l a s s i f i -
curve, surface, solid and o b j e c t represen- cation permits the c o m p a r i s o n of the gross
tations, geometric algorithms, languages features of two-dimensional functions
and systems; 1.3.7 [Computer Graphics]: p r e l i m i n a r y to the m i n u t e particulars; a
Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism-- good g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e on this a p p l i c a t i o n
color, shading, shadowing, and texture. is [12].

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 In c o m p u t e r graphics, p y r a m i d a l tex-
ture maps m a y be used to p e r f o r m a r b i t r a r y
m a p p i n g s of a function w i t h m i n i m a l alias- G
ing artifacts and reduced computation.
Once again, images m a y be represented at
d i f f e r e n t spatial b a n d w i d t h s . The c o n c e r n
is that inappropriate resolution
misrepresents the data; that is, s a m p l i n g
high-resolution data at larger sample
i n t e r v a l s invites aliasing.

2. Parametric Interpolation

By a p y r a m i d a l p a r a m e t r i c data struc-
ture, we will mean simply a pyramidal
s t r u c t u r e w i t h b o t h intra- and i n t e r - l e v e l
interpolation. Consider the case of an
image represented as a two-dimensional
array of samples. I n t e r p o l a t i o n is neces-
sary to p r o d u c e a c o n t i n u o u s function of
two p a r a m e t e r s , U and V. If, in addition,
a third p a r a m e t e r (call it D) moves us up
and down a hierarchy of corresponding
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l functions, w i t h i n t e r p o l a -
tion b e t w e e n (or among) the levels of the Figure (i)
pyramid p r o v i d i n g continuity, the struc- S t r u c t u r e o f a Color Mip M a p
ture is p y r a m i d a l p a r a m e t r i c . Smaller and smaller images diminish into
the upper left c o r n e r of the map. Each of
~he practical distinction between the images is averaged down from its
such a structure and an o r d i n a r y interpo- larger p r e d e c e s s o r .
lant over an n - d i m e n s i o n a l a r r a y of sam-
ples is that the number of samples (Below:)
r e p r e s e n t i n g each level of the pyramid m a y M i p maps are i n d e x e d b y t h r e e c o o r d i n a t e s :
be different. U, V, and D. U and V are spatial c o o r d i -
nates of the map; D is the variable used
~. Mip M a p p i n g to index, and interpolate between, th~
d i f f e r e n t levels of the pyramid.
"Mip" m a p p i n g is a p a r t i c u l a r format
for t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t r i c functions,
which, a l o n g with its a s s o c i a t e d address- V
ing scheme, has b e e n used s u c c e s s f u l l y to
bandlimit texture mapping at New York V
Institute of T e c h n o l o g y since 1979. The
a c r o n y m "mip" is from the Latin phrase
"multum in parvo," m e a n i n g "many t h i n g s in
a small place." Mip mapping supplements
bilinear i n t e r p o l a t i o n of pixel v a l u e s in V
the texture m a p (which may be used to
smoothly translate and m a g n i f y the tex-
ture) w i t h i n t e r p o l a t i o n between prefil- ~ L L
tered versions of the m a p (which m a y be
used to c o m p r e s s m a n y p i x e l s into a small
place). In this latter capacity, mip
offers m u c h g r e a t e r speed than texturing
algorithms which perform explicit convolu-
tion over an area in the texture map for
each pixel r e n d e r e d [I], [6].

M i p owes its speed in compressing

texture to two factors. First, a fair
amount of f i l t e r i n g of the original tex-
ture takes p l a c e w h e n the m i p m a p is first Figure (I) illustrates the memory
created. Second, s u b s e q u e n t filtering is organization of a color mip map. The
approximated b y b l e n d i n g d i f f e r e n t levels image is s e p a r a t e d into its red, green,
of the mip map. This means that all and blue components (R, G, and B in the
filters are approximated by linearly diagram). S u c c e s s i v e l y f i l t e r e d and down-
i n t e r p o l a t i n g a set of square b o x filters, sampled versions of each c o m p o n e n t are
the sides of w h i c h are p o w e r s - o f - t w o pix- i n s t a n c e d a b o v e and to the left of the
els in length. Thus, mapping entails a originals, in a series of smaller and
fixed overhead, which is i n d e p e n d e n t of smaller images, each half the linear
the area filtered to c o m p u t e a sample. dimension (and a quarter the n u m b e r of
samples) of its parent. Successive divi-
sions by four p a r t i t i o n the frame b u f f e r
e q u a l l y among the three components, w i t h a
single unused pixel r e m a i n i n g in the upper
left-hand corner.

The concept b e h i n d this m e m o r y organ-

ization is that c o r r e s p o n d i n g points in
different prefiltered maps can be
addressed simply by a b i n a r y shift of an I
input U, V coordinate pair. Since the
filtering and sampling are p e r f o r m e d at
scales w h i c h are p o w e r s of two, indexing
the maps is possible with inexpensive
b i n a r y scaling. In a h a r d w a r e i m p l e m e n t a -
tion, the a d d r e s s e s in all the c o r r e s p o n d -
ing maps (now separate memories) would be
instantly and simultaneously available
from the U, V input.

The routines for c r e a t i n g and access-

ing mip maps at NYIT are based on simple
box (Fourier) window prefiltering, bil- Figure (2)
inear i n t e r p o l a t i o n of p i x e l s w i t h i n each M i p map of the flexible NYIT Test Frog.
map instance, and linear interpolation
between two maps for each value of D (the
p y r a m i d ' s v e r t i c a l coordinate). For each c o m p r e s s e d by p o i n t sampling in (5) and by
of the three components of a color m i p m i p p i n g in (6).
map, this r e q u i r e s 8 pixel reads and 7
multiplications. This choice of filters The m o r e general and i n t e r e s t i n g case
is s t r i c t l y for the sake of speed. Note -- continuously variable u p s a m p l i n g and
that the b i l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n of pixel d o w n s a m p l i n g of the o r i g i n a l texture -- is
values at the e x t r e m e edges of each map illustrated in (7) on a v a r i e t y of sur-
instance must be performed with pixels faces. Since the s y m m e t r y of m i p filter-
from the o p p o s i t e edge(s) of that map, for ing would be expected to show up b a d l y
texture which is periodic. For non- when texture is compressed in o n l y one
periodic texture, scaling or clipping of dimension, figures (8) t h r o u g h (i0) are of
the U, V c o o r d i n a t e s p r e v e n t s the intru- especial interest. These pictures,
sion of an i n a p p r o p r i a t e m a p or color com- created by Ed E m s h w i l l e r at NYIT for his
ponent into the interpolation. videotape, "Sunstone," were mapped using
Alvy Ray Smith's TEXAS a n i m a t i o n program,
The box (Fourier) window used to w h i c h in turn used MIP to antialias tex-
create the m i p maps i l l u s t r a t e d here, and ture. As the p a n e l s rotate edge-on, the
the tent (Bartlett) w i n d o w used to inter- t e x t u r e c o l l a p s e s to a line smoothly and
polate them, are far from ideal; yet prob- w i t h o u t a p p a r e n t artifacts.
ably the most severe compromise made by
mip filtering is that it is symmetrical.
Each of the p r e f i l t e r e d levels of the map
is filtered e q u a l l y in X and Y. Choosing
a value of D trades off aliasing against
blurring, which becomes a tricky proposi-
tion as a p i x e l ' s p r o j e c t i o n in the tex-
ture m a p d e v i a t e s from symmetry. Heckbert
[8] suggests:

d = max Ou 2+ v 2 _ //~u~2+/av~2~

where D is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the "diameter"

of the area in the texture to be filtered,
and the p a r t i a l s of U and V (the texture-
map coordinates) w i t h r e s p e c t to X and Y
(the screen coordinates) can be c a l c u l a t e d
from the surface projection.

I l l u s t r a t i o n s of m a p p i n g p e r f o r m e d by
the m i p t e c h n i q u e are the s u b j e c t of Fig-
ures (2) t h r o u g h (i0). The NYIT Test Frog
Figure (7)
in Figure (2) is m a g n i f i e d by simple point
sampling in (3), and b y interpolation in General mapping: interpolation and
(4). The h a p l e s s a m p h i b i a n is s i m i l a r l y pyramidal compression.
 Figure (3) Figure (4)
Upsampling the frog: magnification by Upsampling the frog: magnification by
point samplinq. bilinear interpolation.

Figure (5)
Downsampling the frog= compression by point sampling (detail, right).

Figure (6)
Downsampling: compression by pyramidal interpolation (detail, right).

4
 Figures (8)-(9)
"Sunstone" by Ed Emshwiller, segment animated by Alvy Ray Smith
Pyramidal parametric texture mapping on polygons.
 Figures (i0)-(ii)
"Sunstone" by Ed Emshwiller, segment animated by Alvy Ray Smith
Pyramidal parametric texture mapping on polygons.
4. Hi@blight Antialiasin@
Figure (13)
As small or highly curved objects
move across a raster, their surface nor- .-",.. /
mals may b e a t e r r a t i c a l l y with the sam-
pling grid. This causes the shading : i'.
values to flash annoyingly in motion is
sequences, a symptom of illumination
aliasing. The surface n o r m a l s e s s e n t i a l l y
p o i n t - s a m p l e the i l l u m i n a t i o n function.

Figure (12) illustrates samples of

the surface n o r m a l s of a set of p ar a l l e l
cylinders. The c y l i n d e r s in the diagram Figure (14)
are depicted as if from the edge of the
image plane; the r e g u l a r l y - s p a c e d v e r t i c a l
line segments are the samples along a sin-
gle axis. The arrows at the sample points :i •

indicate the directions of the surface

normals. D e p e n d i n g on the shading formula ' \ ! i~

invoked, there m a y be v e r y h i g h c o n t r a s t
b e t w e e n samples w h e r e the normal is n e a r l y
parallel to the sample axis, and samples
w h e r e the normal points directly at the
o b s e r v e r ' s eye.
s p e c u l a r surface r e f l e c t i o n function. The
Figure (12) highlight indicated by the bump falls
e n t i r e l y b e t w e e n the samples. (Note that
this is o n l y p o s s i b l e on a flat surface if
either the eye or the light is local, a
4) point in space r a t h e r than simply a direc-
tion vector. Some b o r i n g shading formulae
exclude the possibility of highlight
a l i a s i n g on p o l y g o n s b y r e q u i r i n g all flat
surfaces to be flat in shading.)

A first a t t e m p t to o v e r c o m e the limi-

tations o f p o i n t - s a m p l i n g the i l l u m i n a t i o n
function is to i n t e g r a t e the function over
the projected area represented b y each
sample point. This approach is illus-
trated in Figure (14). The b r a c k e t s at
each sample r e p r e s e n t the area of the sur-
face over w h i c h the i l l u m i n a t i o n f u n c t i o n
is integrated. This p r o c e d u r e is analo-
gous to a r e a - a v e r a g i n g of sampled edges or
The shading function d e p e n d s not only texture [3].
on the shape of the surface, but its light
reflection properties (characterized by In order to g e n e r a l i z e this approach
the shading formula), the p o s i t i o n of the to curved surfaces, the "sample interval"
light source, and the position of the over w h i c h i l l u m i n a t i o n is i n t e g r a t e d must
o b s e r v e r ' s eye. H a n r a h a n [7] e x p r e s s e s it be m o d i f i e d a c c o r d i n g to the local curva-
in h o n e s t Greek: ture of the surface at a sample. In Fig-
ure (15), the area of a surface
Ixly~(E,N,L) ~(u,v)0(x,y) dxdy r e p r e s e n t e d b y a pixel has b e e n projected
onto a curved surface. The solid angle
over w h i c h i l l u m i n a t i o n must be i n t e g r a t e d
where the normal, N, the light sources, L, is a p p r o x i m a t e d b y the v o l u m e e n c l o s e d b y
and the eye, E, are v e c t o r s w h i c h m a y each the n o r m a l s at the pixel corners. The
be functions of U and V, and the limits of distribution of light w i t h i n this v o l u m e
i n t e g r a t i o n are the X, Y b o u n d a r i e s of the will sum to an estimate of the diffuse
pixel. r e f l e c t i o n over the pixel. If the surface
exhibits u n d u l a t i o n s at the pixel level,
Figure (13) illustrates highlight however, a l i a s i n g will result.
a l i a s i n g on a p e r f e c t l y flat surface. The
viewing c o n v e n t i o n s of the d i a g r a m are the
same as in Figure (12). "L" is the direc-
tion vector of the light source; the sur-
Figure (15)
face is a p o l y g o n at an a n g l e to the image
plane; the d o t t e d b u m p is a g r a p h of the
reflected light, characteristic of a
 We m i g h t d i v i d e the surface up into
regions of r e l a t i v e l y low c u r v a t u r e (as is
done in some p a t c h r e n d e r i n g algorithms),
and rely on "edge antialiasing" to
integrate the d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e s w i t h i n a
pixel. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , we m a y d e v e l o p some
m e c h a n i s m for limiting the local c u r v a t u r e
of surfaces b e f o r e rendering. This p o s s i -
b i l i t y is e x p l o r e d in the n e x t section.

If we r e p r e s e n t the i l l u m i n a t i o n of a
scene as a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l map, h i g h l i g h t s
can be e f f e c t i v e l y a n t i a l i a s e d in m u c h the
same way as textures. Blinn and Newell
[I] d e m o n s t r a t e d specular r e f l e c t i o n using
an i l l u m i n a t i o n map. The m a p was an image
of the e n v i r o n m e n t (a s p h e r i c a l p r o j e c t i o n
of the scene, i n d e x e d by the X and Y com-
ponents of the surface normals) which
could be used to cast r e f l e c t i o n s onto
Figure (16) specular surfaces. The i m p r e s s i o n of mir-
Michael Chou (right) poses with an ima- rored facets and c h r o m e objects w h i c h can
ginary companion. Reflectance m a p s can be a c h i e v e d w i t h this m e t h o d is striking;
enhance the r e a l i s m of s y n t h e t i c shading. Figure (16) provides an illustration.
R e f l e c t a n c e m a p p i n g is not, however, accu-
rate for local reflections. To a c h i e v e
similar results with three dimensional
accuracy requires ray-tracing.

A pyramidal parametric illumination

map permits convenient antialiasing of
h i g h l i g h t s as long as a good measure of
local surface c u r v a t u r e is available. The
value of "D" used to index the m a p is pro-
portional to t~e solid angle s u b t e n d e d by
the surface over the pixel b e i n g computed;
this may be e s t i m a t e d by the same formula
used to c o m p u t e D for ordinary texture
mapping. Nine light sources of v a r y i n g
b r i g h t n e s s glint r a g g e d l y from the test
o b j e c t in Figure (18); the r e f l e c t a n c e m a p
in Figure (17) p r o v i d e d the illumination.
In Figure (19), convincing highllght
a n t i a l i a s i n g results from the full pyrami-
dal p a r a m e t r i c treatment.
F i g u r e (17)
A pyramidal parametric reflectance map,
containing 9 light sources. The r e g i o n
o u t s i d e the "sDhere" is unused.

Figure (18) Before Figure (19) A f t e r

 32 x 32

64 x 64

Figures (20-23) Different resolution meshes.

5. Levels of Detail in S u r f a c e Represen- A p y r a m i d a l p a r a m e t r i c data structure

tation the c o m p o n e n t s of w h i c h are spatial coor-
dinates (the X-Y-Z of the vertices of a
In a d d i t i o n to b a n d l i m i t i n g texture rectangular mesh, for example, as o p p o s e d
and illumination functions for mapping to the R-G-B of a texture or illumination
onto a surface, p y r a m i d a l p a r a m e t r i c s may map) p r o v i d e s a c o n t i n u o u s l y - v a r i a b l e fil-
be used to limit the level of detail w i t h tered instance of the surface for sampling
w h i c h the surface i t s e l f is represented. at any d e s i r e d degree of resolution.
The goal is to r e p r e s e n t an o b j e c t for
graphic d i s p l a y as economically as its F i g u r e s (20) through (23) illustrate
projection on the image plane permits, a simple surface based on a h u m a n face
without boiling and sparkling aliasing model developed by Fred Parke at the
artifacts as the p r o j e c t i o n changes. University of Utah. As the sampling den-
sity varies, so does the filtering of the
The expense o f c o m p u t i n g and shading surface. These faces are filtered and
each pixel dominates the cost of m a n y sampled b y the same methods previously
a l g o r i t h m s for r e n d e r i n g h i g h e r - o r d e r sur- discussed for texture and reflectance
faces. For meshes of p o l y g o n s or p a t c h maps. Pyramidal parametric representa-
control points w h i c h p r o j e c t onto a small tions such as these a p p e a r p r o m i s i n g for
portion of the image, however, the v e r t e x r e d u c i n g a l i a s i n g effects as well as sys-
(or control-point) expense dominates. In t e m a t i c a l l y s a m p l i n g v e r y large data b a s e s
these s i t u a t i o n s it is d e s i r a b l e to reduce over a wide range of scales and viewing
the number of points used to r e p r e s e n t the angles.
object.
6. Conclusions

Pyramidal data s t r u c t u r e s are of pro-

ven value in image analysis and h a v e
interesting a p p l i c a t i o n to image b a n d w i d t h
compression and transmission. "Pyramidal
parametrics," pyramidal data structures
with intra- and inter-level interpolation,
are here p r o p o s e d for use in image syn-
thesis. By continuously varying the
detail with which data are resolved,
pyramidal parametrics provide economical
approximate solutions to filtering prob-
lems in m a p p i n g texture and i l l u m i n a t i o n
onto surfaces, and p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i m e n t s
suggest t h e y may p r o v i d e flexible surface
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s as well.

7. Acknowledgments

I w o u l d like to a c k n o w l e d g e Ed Cat-
mull, the first (to my knowledge) to a p p l y
multiple prefiltered images to texture
mapping: the m e t h o d was applied to the
b i c u b i c p a t c h e s in his thesis, a l t h o u g h it
was not described. Credit is also due Tom
Duff, who w r o t e b o t h r e c u r s i v e and scan-
order r o u t i n e s for c r e a t i n g mip maps w h i c h
p r e s e r v e d n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n over all map
instances; Dick Lundin, who wrote the
first assembly-coded mip map accessing
routines; Ephraim Cohen, who wrote the
second; Rick Ace, who t r a n s l a t e d E p h r a i m ' s
PDP-II versions for the V A X assembler;
Paul Heckbert, for r e f i n i n g and speeding
up both c r e a t i o n and a c c e s s i n g routines,
and investigating various estimates of
"D"; Michael Chou, for implementing
h i g h l i g h t a n t i a l i a s i n g and h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
r e f l e c t a n c e m a p p i n g on quadric surfaces.

I owe special thanks to Jules

Bloomenthal, Michael Chou, Pat Hanrahan,
and Paul H e c k b e r t for c r i t i c a l reading and
numerous h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s in the course
of p r e p a r i n g this text. P h o t o g r a p h i c sup-
port was p r o v i d e d b y Michael Lehman.

10
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[12] Tanimoto, S.L., and Klinger, A.,

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11