Advancements in Biology

1. GMO
 Genetic engineering is a process whereby genes from one organism are moved into the genome of another organism. In the
case of genetically engineered foods, genes from bacteria or other plants or organisms are moved into foods such as
soybeans, corn, potatoes, and rice to provide herbicide-tolerance and/or insect resistance to the plants.
 A genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically engineered organism (GEO) is
an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. These techniques, generally
known as recombinant DNA technology, use DNA molecules from different sources, which are combined into one molecule
to create a new set of genes. This DNA is then transferred into an organism, giving it modified or novel genes. Transgenic
organisms, a subset of GMOs, are organisms which have inserted DNA that originated in a different species.

• Advantages
✔ More informed customers, because they need to make more informed decisions in regard to nutrition, agriculture and
science.
✔ Less pesticide is needed to be used due to insect pest resistant plants.
✔ More economically friendly as pesticides do not go into the air, soil and water (especially freshwater supplies). Their
production hazards to the environment also decreases.
✔ Decrease in costs of growing and farming, due to the reduced use of pesticides.
✔ Higher crop yields.
✔ Farmers have more income, which they could spend on such things as, for example, the education of their children.
✔ Less deforestation needed to feed the worlds’ growing population (UN projections say that the world population will reach
8.15 billion compared to 6.18 billion in year 2000). This decreases carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which in turn slows
global warming.
✔ Decrease in food prices due to lower costs and higher yield. As people in poor countries spend over half of their income on
food alone, lower food prices mean an automatic reduction of poverty.
✔ Less starvation in the world due to decreased food prices.
✔ More nutritious. This has been proven and tested many times.
✔ Rigorous testing of ALL GMO crops and products. This makes GMOs much safer than organic (the traditional) crops.
✔ Creation of “super foods” due to better knowledge. Super foods are types of food that are cheap to produce, grow fast in
large quantities, highly nutritious.

• Ethical Issues

Effects on the environment

Herbicide Use and Resistance

Effects on the environment are a particular concern with regard to GMO crops and food production. One area of
development involves adding the ability to produce pesticides and resistance to specific herbicides. These traits are helpful
in food production, allowing farmers to use fewer chemicals, and to grow crops in less than ideal conditions. However,
herbicide use could be increased, which will have a larger negative effect on the surrounding environment. Also unintended
hybrid strains of weeds and other plants can develop resistance to these herbicides through cross-pollination, thus negating
the potential benefit of the herbicide. One such herbicide that has already been added is RoundUp. Crops of RoundUp-
ready soybeans have already been implemented into agricultural practices, possibly conferring RoundUp resistance to
neighboring plants.

Effects on Untargeted Species

Bt corn, which produces its own pesticide, is also in use today. Concerns have been raised regarding adverse
effects on Monarch butterfly populations, which are not the original target of the pesticide (Losey, 1999). Although the
pesticide can protect crops against unwanted insects, they can also have unintentional effects on neutral or even beneficial
species.

Effects on Human Health

Allergies
GMO crops could potentially have negative effects on human health as well. When splicing genes between species,
there are examples in which consumers have developed unexpected allergic reactions. Researchers used a gene from the
Brazil nut to increase the production of Methionine in soya beans. The insertion of this gene inadvertently caused allergic
reactions to the soya bean in those with known nut allergies, but no previous allergy to the soya bean, according to the
product developer, Pioneer Hi-Bred (“Biotech Soybeans”).

Long-Term Effects
Because GMO technology has been available for such a short amount of time, there is relatively little research which
has been conducted on the long-term effects on health. The greatest danger lies not in the effects that we have studied,
but in those which we cannot anticipate at this point.
 New Proteins
Proteins which have never been ingested before by humans are now part of the foods that people consume every
day. Their potential effects on the human body are as of yet unknown.

Food Additives
GMOs also present us with possibilities of introducing additional nutrients into foods, as well as antibiotics and
vaccines. This availability of technology can provide nutrition and disease resistance to those countries that don’t have the
means to provide these otherwise. The distribution of these foods is more feasible than mass inoculations for current
diseases. However, even these possibilities carry with them potential negative effects such as the creation of antibiotic and
vaccine-resistant strains of diseases.

1. Cloning
Cloning in biology is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in
nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to
processes used to create copies of DNA fragments (molecular cloning), cells (cell cloning), or organisms. The term also
refers to the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software.
The term clone is derived from κλῶνος, the Greek word for "trunk, branch", referring to the process whereby a new
plant can be created from a twig. In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century; the
final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a "long o" instead of a "short o".[1][2] Since the term entered the popular
lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively

Advantages

1. The possibility of producing not a complete body but just an organ to save the life of a human being who requires the
transplant of that organ.

2. The cloning of a complete human being whose bone marrow would help to save the life of his brother ill with leukemia. The
transplant of bone marrow calls for a close biological link between the donor and the beneficiary, which in the case of cloning is
really the closest possible relationship. In England there was a case where a woman felt obliged to conceive another child who
could provide bone marrow for her only son who suffered from leukemia.

3. The cloning of transgenetic animals, that is animals with modifications brought about by human genes, to use their organs in
transplants in human beings and thus avoid their rejection. Once a prototype of this kind is got then its mass reproduction by
cloning is easier. It's not necessary to go through the inevitable variations and unpredictable situations that attend sexual
reproduction.

4. The reproduction of therapeutic human proteins in the milk of sheep or other mammals, introducing a gen that is active
exclusively in the mammary glands of the animals.

5. Cloning also allows the propagation of animals facing extinction and thus maintains ecological balance.

6. Cloning permits a greater propagation of insects that help control plagues that damage agricultural products, thus reducing
the use of insecticides and pesticides, improving the quality of human life and protecting the environment.

7. Through cloning the industrial method is applied to biology; in other words: quality control and prediction. The quality of the
clone is known beforehand, and also it is known perfectly well that its characteristics are identical in 99% with those of the
original (donor).

8. Cloning also permits that mankind could increase the benefits that would accrue to the human race with an eminent person
such as an Einstein, a Newton, a Beethoven,or an Aristotle. But would we really reproduce Einstein himself, Newton himself,
Beethoven himself, and Aristotle himself? From the biological point of view, yes, but as we have already seen, "the
circumstances" have different effects on the genes, and for this reason Thomas Edison said that genius is the result of 1%
inspiration and 99% perspiration. This is an exaggeration, but without any doubt the extragenetic factors are very important.

9. Cloning will also enable us to understand why nervous cells, unlike the others in the human body, don't multiply. This is very
important because if nerve cells could be multiplied it would be eventually possible, among other things, to enable paralyzed
people, who have suffered the fracture of their spinal cord, to walk again.

10. Cloning will also hopefully allow us to understand why certain specialized cells suffer an enormous and unnecessary
reproduction. They go through a process of regression to their embryonic state, multiplying incessantly and causing cancerous
tumors that eventually lead to death.

Ethical Issues
 1.Although the cloned animal will be identical. It will only possess about half the life span of the normal animal which has been
cloned. An example is from the famous ‘Dolly’ previous mentioned which only lived for 6 years, whereas normal sheep can
live up to about 10 years of

age, so a great decrease in age.

2.Reasons for cloning aren’t exactly for keeping resources, such as food for the future, but in fact we are basically taking
embryos from the animal for research and by doing this leaving the animal useless. This is similar to humans being cloned,
where there human embryos are taken away from them for research because they believe that it isn’t really a person.
However, if it is alive and has every trait that a humans has, then how can it be called useless to us?
3.Even if we can clone animals and make them perfectly the same, is this what God would’ve wanted? For us to have the
power to clone living organisms such as animals, and one day even human beings?
4.Many believe cloning is quite inhumane, especially that of religious and some governmental parties which don’t want to
move forward with this research. They think life is just too precious to take away, even if it is a clone in which we are testing.

1. Stem Cells
A stem cell is a generic cell that can make exact copies of itself indefinitely. A stem cell has the ability to produce
specialized cells for various tissues in the body, such as heart muscle, brain tissue, and liver tissue. Stem cells can be
saved and used as a later date to produce specialized cells, when needed.
There are two basic types of stem cells:
Embryonic stem cells - these are taken from aborted fetuses or fertilized eggs that are left over from in vitro
fertilization (IVF). They are useful for medical and research purposes because they can produce cells for almost every
tissue in the body.
Adult stem cells - these are not as versatile for research purposes because they are specific to certain cell types,
such as blood, intestines, skin, and muscle. The term "adult stem cell" may be misleading because both children and adults
have them.

Advantages
•It provides medical benefits in the fields of therapeutic cloning and regenerative medicine.
•It provides great potential for discovering treatments and cures to a plethora of diseases including Parkinson’s disease,
schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease, Cancer, spinal cord injuries, diabetes and many more.
•Limbs and organs could be grown in a lab from stem cells and then used in transplants or to help treat illnesses.
•It will help scientists to learn about human growth and cell development.
•Scientists and doctors will be able to test millions of potential drugs and medicine, without the use of animals or human
testers. This necessitates a process of simulating the effect the drug has on a specific population of cells. This would tell if
the drug is useful or has any problems.
•Stem cell research also benefits the study of development stages that cannot be studied directly in a human embryo,
which sometimes are linked with major clinical consequences such as birth defects, pregnancy loss and infertility. A more
comprehensive understanding of normal development will ultimately allow the prevention or treatment of abnormal human
development.
•Another advantage of stem cell research is that it holds the key to reversing the effects of aging and prolonging our lives.
Stem cell research has already found many treatments that help slow the aging process, and a bonus of further stem cell
research is a possible ‘cure’ for aging altogether.
•An advantage of the usage of adult stem cells to treat disease is that a patient’s own cells could be used to treat a patient.
Risks would be quite reduced because patients’ bodies would not reject their own cells.
•An advantage of using embryonic stem cells is that they can develop into any cell types of the body, and may then be
more versatile than adult stem cells.
Disadvantages of Stem Cell Research
• The use of embryonic stem cells for research involves the destruction of blastocysts formed from laboratory-fertilized
human eggs. For those people who believe that life begins at conception, the blastocyst is a human life and to destroy it is
immoral and unacceptable.
• Like any other new technology, it is also completely unknown what the long term effects of such an interference with
nature could materialize.
• Embryonic stem cells amy not be the solution for all ailments.
• According to a new research stem cell therapy was used on heart disease patients. It was found that it can make their
coronary arteries become narrower.
 • A disadvantage of most adult stem cells is that they are pre-specialized, for instance, blood stem cells make only blood,
and brain stem cells make only brain cells.
• A disadvantage of embryonic stem cells is that they are derived from embryos that are not a patient’s own and the
patient’s body may reject them.
Ethical Issues
The stem cell controversy is the ethical debate centered only on research involving the creation, usage, and
destruction of human embryos. Most commonly, this controversy focuses on embryonic stem cells. Not all stem cell research
involves the creation, usage and destruction of human embryos. For example, adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells and induced
pluripotent stem cells do not involve creating, using or destroying human embryos and thus are minimally, if at all, controversial.

1. Human Genome Project

Completed in 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was a 13-year project coordinated by the U.S. Department of
Energy and the National Institutes of Health. During the early years of the HGP, the Wellcome Trust (U.K.) became a major
partner; additional contributions came from Japan, France, Germany, China, and others. See our history page for more
information.
Project goals were to
• identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA,
• determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA,
• store this information in databases,
• improve tools for data analysis,
• transfer related technologies to the private sector, and
• address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.
Though the HGP is finished, analyses of the data will continue for many years.
Advantages
Knowledge about the effects of DNA variations among individuals can lead to revolutionary new ways to diagnose, treat,
and someday prevent the thousands of disorders that affect us. Besides providing clues to understanding human biology,
learning about nonhuman organisms' DNA sequences can lead to an understanding of their natural capabilities that can be
applied toward solving challenges in health care, agriculture, energy production, environmental remediation, and carbon
sequestration.
Ethical Issues
• Fairness in the use of genetic information by insurers, employers, courts, schools, adoption agencies, and the
military, among others.
• Privacy and confidentiality of genetic information.

• Psychological impact and stigmatization due to an individual's genetic differences.

• Reproductive issues including adequate informed consent for complex and potentially controversial procedures, use of
genetic information in reproductive decision making, and reproductive rights.

• Clinical issues including the education of doctors and other health service providers, patients, and the general public in
genetic capabilities, scientific limitations, and social risks; and implementation of standards and quality-control measures
in testing procedures.

• Uncertainties associated with gene tests for susceptibilities and complex conditions (e.g., heart disease) linked to
multiple genes and gene-environment interactions.

• Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility,

Sources: free will vs genetic determinism, and
http://schools.sd68.bc.ca/ceds/library/cloni
concepts of health and disease.
http://environmentalcommons.org/gmo.ht ng.htm
• Health ml http://animalcloning.wordpress.com/2008/
and environmental issues concerning genetically modified foods (GM) and microbes.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_mo 05/17/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
• Commercialization of products including property rights (patents, copyrights, and trade secrets) and accessibility of
dified_organism animal-cloning/
data and materials.
http://hubpages.com/hub/GMO-
advantages-and-disadvantages http://www.righthealth.com/topic/What_Is_
http://www.macalester.edu/~montgomery/ Stem_Cell?p=l&as=goog&ac=404
gmos2.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell_cont
roversy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning