Concrete pipes and portal culverts are the most frequently used and accepted products for stormwater drainage, culverts, outfall sewers and many other applications. To meet these needs South Africas concrete pipe industry has grown tremendously over the past eighty years. Modern technology and the acceptance of SANS (SABS) standards ensure that products with consistently high quality are produced. Provided sound design and installation methods are followed, these products will give the desired hydraulic and structural performance over a long service life. This handbook is intended to cover all aspects of concrete pipe and portal culvert selection, specification, and testing. As a handbook it does not attempt to replace textbooks or codes, but rather to complement them by providing the information needed for quick site decisions and guidance for designers to ensure that all aspects of product use are considered. A companion publication The Concrete Pipe and Portal Culvert Installation Manual deals with product installation. Publications by the American Concrete Pipe Association have been used freely and acknowledgement is hereby made to this organisation. The Concrete Pipe, Infrastructural Products and Engineering Solutions (PIPES) Division of the Concrete Manufacturers Association has had this handbook prepared for the guidance of specifying bodies, consultants and contracting organisations using concrete pipes and portal culverts manufactured in accordance with the relevant SANS (SABS) standards. The Division expresses appreciation to A.R. Dutton & Partners for the preparation of the original Concrete Pipe Handbook to which additions and amendments have been made to produce this publication.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INT R ODUC T ION .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. OB J E C T IV E ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.2. S C OP E ............................................................................................................................... 1 2. P R ODUC T C LAS S IF IC AT ION ................................................................................................ 1 2.1. S T ANDAR DS ...................................................................................................................... 1 2.2. C ONC R E T E P IP E S ............................................................................................................ 2 2.3. P OR T AL C ULV E R T S ......................................................................................................... 4 2.4. MANHOLE S ........................................................................................................................ 6 3. HY DR AULIC S ........................................................................................................................ 7 3.1. C ONDUIT C LAS S IF IC AT ION ............................................................................................. 7 3.2. HY DR AULIC LE NG T H........................................................................................................ 8 3.3. P R E S S UR E P IP E LINE S ..................................................................................................... 9 3.4. S E W E R S AND S T OR MW AT E R OUT F ALLS .................................................................... 10 3.5. HY DR AULIC S OF S T OR MW ATE R C ULV E R T S .............................................................. 11 3.6. P OR OUS P IP E S ............................................................................................................... 17 4. LOADS ON B UR IE D P IP E LINE S ......................................................................................... 19 4.1. INT R ODUC T ION .............................................................................................................. 19 4.2. E AR T H LOADS ................................................................................................................ 19 4.3. T R AF F IC LOADING .......................................................................................................... 25 5. C ONC R E T E P IP E S T R E NG T HS .......................................................................................... 28 5.1. E X T E R NAL LOADS .......................................................................................................... 28 5.2. INT E R NAL P R E S S UR E .................................................................................................... 29 5.3. S AF E T Y F AC TOR S .......................................................................................................... 29 5.4. S E LE C T ION OF T HE C ONC R E TE P IP E C LAS S ............................................................. 29 6. B E DDING ............................................................................................................................. 32 6.1. G E NE R AL ........................................................................................................................ 32 6.2. T R E NC H AND NE G AT IV E P R OJ E C T ION INS T ALLAT IONS ........................................... 33 6.3. P OS IT IV E P R OJ E C T ION INS T ALLAT IONS ..................................................................... 36 6.4. S OILC R E T E B E DDING .................................................................................................... 38 6.5. J AC K ING C ONDIT IONS ................................................................................................... 38 7. P IP E J OINT ING .................................................................................................................... 39 7.1. J OINT T Y P E S ................................................................................................................... 39 7.2. B UT T AND INT E R LOC K ING J OINT P IP E S ...................................................................... 39 7.3. S P IG OT AND S OC K E T J OINT S ....................................................................................... 39 7.4. IN-T HE -W ALL J OINT S ..................................................................................................... 40 8. F LOATAT ION ....................................................................................................................... 41 8.1. G E NE R AL ........................................................................................................................ 41 8.2. F LOATAT ION B E F OR E B AC K F ILLING ............................................................................ 41 8.3. F LOATAT ION AF T E R B AC K F ILLING ............................................................................... 41 9. S E W E R C OR R OS ION.......................................................................................................... 42 9.1. C OR R OS ION ME C HANIS M ............................................................................................. 42 9.2. C OR R OS ION P R E DIC T ION AND C ONT R OL .................................................................. 43 9.3. DE V E LOP ME NT S IN S OUT H AF R IC A............................................................................. 44 9.4. DE S IG N AND DE TAIL C ONS IDE R AT IONS ..................................................................... 46 9.5. P IP E MAT E R IAL C HOIC E F OR S E W E R S ....................................................................... 47 9.6. S AC R IF IC IAL T HIC K NE S S AND ALLOW AB LE C R AC K W IDT HS ................................... 49 10. P OR T AL C ULV E R T S T R E NG T HS ................................................................................... 51 10.1. G E NE R AL......................................................................................................................... 51 10.2. DE T E R MINING P OR T AL C ULVE R T S T R E NG T HS ......................................................... 51 10.3. P OR T AL B AS E S LAB S ..................................................................................................... 54 11. F IE LD T E S T ING ............................................................................................................... 55 11.1. W ATE R T E S T ................................................................................................................... 55 11.2. AIR T E S T ING ................................................................................................................... 55 11.3. S OIL DE NS IT Y T E S T ....................................................................................................... 56 BIBLIOGRAPHY 59
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. OBJECTIVE
T he purpos e of this handbook is to give the us ers , designers , specifiers and ins tallers of precas t concrete pipe and portal culverts the bas ic guidelines for the correct us e, selection and s pecification of thes e products . A companion publication T he C oncrete P ipe and P ortal C ulvert Ins tallation Manual gives details of how thes e products s hould be ins talled.
1.2. SCOPE
T he content of this handbook covers the pre-cons truction activities as s ociated with precas t concrete pipe and portal culverts , namely thos e undertaken by the designer of the project. Des criptions are given of the basic theory needed for determining: product size product s trength product durability s pecial product features T he basic formulae, diagrams and tables s upport this . T his information is adequate for mos t product applications . However, the theory given is by no means rigorous. T he reader is advised to cons ult the relevant textbooks or codes , s hould a detailed analysis be required. A lis t of us eful publications is given at the end of this handbook.
2. PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION
2.1. STANDARDS
T here are three groups of s tandards which are applicable to precas t concrete pipe and portal culverts , namely: C odes of practice that detail how product size, s trength and durability should be s elected. P roduct s tandards that pres cribe what product requirements have to be met. C ons truction standards that pres cribe how products s hould be ins talled. T he S outh African B ureau of S tandards (S AB S ) has been res tructured. T he division dealing with the production of s tandards is S tandards S outh Africa (S tanS A). All the previously des ignated S AB S s tandards are to be renamed as S outh African National S tandards (S ANS ) and will retain their numbers . T his document us es the latter. T he divis ion dealing with the is s uing of manufacturing permits and the auditing pf production facilities is G lobal C onformity S ervices (G C S ). T he products covered by this publication comply with the requirements of relevant (S ANS ) document. T hes e are performance s pecifications that detail the properties of the finis hed products needed to ens ure that they are s uitable for their required application. All thes e s tandards have the s ame bas ic layout, namely: S cope Normative references Definitions Materials us ed R equirements to be met S ampling and compliance Ins pection and tes t methods Marking
Normative and informative annexures . Mos t factories operated by the P IP E S Division member companies have approved quality management s ys tems to ens ure that products comply with the relevant S ANS s pecifications . In addition to this G C S , does frequent audits to check that s tandards are being maintained. T hese s tandards are periodically reviewed to ens ure that marketplace requirements are met.
2.2.2.Pipe classes
Non-pressure pipe P ipes are clas sified in terms of their crushing s trength when s ubjected to a vertical knifeedge tes t-load. T he two alternative crushing load tes t configurations are s hown in F igure 1 (a) & (b).
(a) T wo edge bearing tes t (b) T hree edge bearing tes t FIGURE 1: CRUSHING LOAD TEST CONFIGURATIONS FOR CONCRETE PIPE T he three edge-bearing tes t is preferred as the pipe is firmly held in place by the bottom two bearers before and during the tes t. W ith the two-edge bearing tes t there is the danger that the pipe could slip out of the tes ting apparatus or might not be perfectly s quare when tes ted.
The proof load is defined as the line load that a pipe can sus tain without the development of cracks of width exceeding 0.25 mm or more over a dis tance exceeding 300 mm, in a two or three edge bearing tes t. Non-reinforced pipes are not permitted to crack under their proof load. The ultimate load is defined as the maximum line load that the pipe will s upport in a two or three edge-bearing tes t and s hall be at least 1.25 times the proof load. T he s tandard crushing load s trength designation is the D-load (diameter load). T his is the proof load in kilonewtons per metre of pipe length, per metre of nominal pipe diameter. T he s tandard D-load clas ses with their proof and ultimate loads are given in T able 1. T AB LE 1: S T ANDAR D D-LOAD C LAS S IF IC AT ION F OR C ONC R E T E P IP E S Pipe Class D-Load 25D 50D 75D 100D Proof load kN/m 25xD 50xD 75xD 100xD Ultimate loadkN/m 31.25xD 62.50xD 93.75xD 125.00xD Example F or a 1050 mm diameter 75D pipe proof load = 1.05 x 75 = 78.75 kN/m ultimate load = 1.05 x 93.75 = 98.44 kN/m
P ipes made in accordance to S ANS 677 are divided into two types , S C pipes for s tormwater and culvert applications S I pipes for s ewer and irrigation applications . S C pipes are used in applications where there is no internal pres s ure. A s mall s ample ( 2%) of pipes is s ubjected to the crus hing s trength tes t to prove that they meet the s trength required. S I P ipes , on the other hand, are us ed in applications where there could be internal pres s ure under certain conditions (as when blockages occur). T o ens ure that the pipes will meet this pos sible condition and ens ure that the joints are watertight, a s mall s ample of pipes is hydros tatically tes ted to a pres s ure of 140 kilopas cals in addition to the crus hing s trength tes t. T able 2 gives proof loads of the preferred nominal diameters given in S ANS 676 and 677. T AB LE 2: P R E F E R R E D C ONC R E T E P IP E DIAME T E R S AND P R OOF LOADS IN- K N/M Notes Nominal Pipe D Loads in Kilonewtons/m Diameter-mm 1) P ipes with diameters 25D 50D 75D 100D s maller than 300 mm, or 300 15.0 22.5 30.0 larger than 1 800 mm are 375 18.8 28.1 37.5 made at s ome factories. 450 22.5 33.8 45.0 2) S trengths greater than 525 13.1 26.3 39.4 52.5 100D can be produced to 600 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 order. 675 16.9 33.8 50.6 67.5 3) Mos t pipes are made in moulds with fixed outside 750 18.3 37.5 56.3 75.0 diameters . T he designer 825 20.6 41.3 62.0 82.5 s hould check minimum 900 22.5 45.0 67.5 90.0 the internal diameters to 1 050 26.3 52.5 78.8 105.0 ens ure that requirements 1 200 30.0 60.0 90.0 120.0 are met. 1 350 33.8 67.5 101.3 135.0 1 500 37.5 75.0 112.5 150.0 1 800 45.0 90.0 135.0 180.0
Pressure pipe P res s ure pipes are clas sified in terms of their hydraulic s trength when s ubject to an internal pres s ure tes t under factory conditions. Hydraulic strength is defined as the internal pres s ure in bar that the pipe can withs tand for at leas t 2 minutes without s howing any s ign of leakage. T he standard hydraulic s trength designation is the tes t (T ) pres s ure. T he S ANS 676 pres sure clas s es are given in T able 3. T AB LE 3: S T ANDAR D P R E S S UR E C LAS S E S F OR P IP E Pipe class T2 T4 T6 T8 T 10 Test pressure Bars Kilopascals 2 200 4 400 6 600 8 800 10 1 000
Special-purpose pipe Many pres s ure pipelines are ins talled at a nominal fill and where they are not s ubject to traffic loads . Under these circums tances the hydraulic s trength designation, given in T able 3, is adequate. However, when a pipeline is s ubject to the simultaneous application of internal pres sure and external load, the pipes will need to s us tain a higher hydraulic pres s ure and crus hing s trength than when s ervice loads are applied s eparately. Under thes e conditions the pipes will be clas s ified as s pecial-purpos e pipes and the required hydraulic tes t pres s ure and crushing s trength to meet the required ins talled conditions will have to be calculated. T hes e pipes mus t be s pecified in terms of both their D-load and T -pres s ure values.
T he s tandard crus hing s trength des ignation us ed is the S -load. (S pan-crushing load) T his is the vertical component of the proof load in kilonewtons that a 1metre length of culvert will withs tand, divided by the nominal span of the portal culvert in metres . T here are three different loading configurations that are applied to precas t portal culverts to model the ins talled conditions , namely: Deck bending moment and s way Deck s hear Inner leg bending moment and s hear T hes e configurations are shown res pectively in F igure 2(a), (b) and (c) below and the s tandard S -load clas s es with their proof load requirements are given in T able 4. Ph PV PS
P hl
FIGURE 2: LOAD TEST CONFIGURATIONS FOR PRECAST PORTAL CULVERTS T AB LE 4: S T ANDAR D S -LOAD C LAS S IF IC AT ION F OR P OR T AL C ULV E R T S Culvert class S-Load Proof loads - kN/m of length Vertical Horizontal 75S 75 x S 30 100S 100 x S 30 125S 125 x S 30 150S 150 x S 30 175S 175 x S 30 200S 200 x S 30 Note: S is the nominal s pan in metres . Leg Proof loads - kN/m of length Height > S/2 Height = S 0.4 x 75 x S 0.60 x 75 x S 0.3 x 100 x S 0.50 x 100 x S 0.2 x 125 x S 0.45 x 125 x S 0.2 x 150 x S 0.43 x 150 x S 0.2 x 175 x S 0.40 x 175 x S 0.2 x 200 x S 0.40 x 200 x S
T able 5 gives the vertical and horizontal proof loads obtained by applying the clas sification in T able 4 to the preferred portal culvert dimens ions given in S ANS 986. A table s imilar to T able 5 can be obtained by application of the values in T able 4 to obtain the inner leg bending moments and s hears . It s hould be noted that there will be two different values of the horizontal load for each culvert s pan and clas s, i.e. when 0.5 < H/S < 1.0 and H/S = 1.0. W hen H/S < 0.5 no horizontal leg load is required.
T AB LE 5: P R E F E R R E D P OR T AL C ULV E R T DIME NS IONS AND P R OOF LOADS Culvert span mm 450 600 750 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 3000 3600 Vertical proof loads in kN/m of length Culvert class 75S 100S 150S 175S 200S 90.0 120.0 131.3 157.5 180.0 150.0 135.0 157.5 180.0 225.0 270.0 Horizontal proof load all classes kN/m
30
3. HYDRAULICS
3.1. CONDUIT CLASSIFICATION
C onduits conveying fluids are clas sified by various parameters , namely, whether: T hey flow as open channels or clos ed conduits T he flow is uniform, in which cas e the flow depth, velocity and dis charge along the whole length of the conduits are cons tant. If not uniform, the flow is varied T he flow is s teady in which cas e the flow pas t a given point has a cons tant depth, velocity and dis charge. If not s teady, the flow is uns teady. A pipeline conveying potable water or other fluids generally flows full and operates under pres s ure and the flow is both uniform and s teady. T he total energy in such a s ys tem will have three components , namely conduit height or diameter, velocity head and pres s ure head as s hown in F igure 3.
T otal energy line Hydraulic grade line hf v2 2g
T he total energy at any point along a conduit operating under pres s ure can be defined by B ernoullis equation: H = z + d/2 + hp + v2/2g W here z - height of invert above datum in d - conduit height or diameter in m v - velocity in m/s g - gravitational cons tant in m/s /s hp -pres s ure head in pipeline in m hf -energy los s due to friction in m
hp
Datum
FIG 3: CONDUIT FLOWING FULL As there is pres s ure in s uch a conduit, the fluid can be carried uphill provided the value of hp s tays positive. S uch a s ys tem is clas sified as a pres s ure pipeline. On the other hand, a conduit conveying s tormwater or s ewage generally flows partly full and the flow is frequently both varied and uns teady. T here is an air/fluid interface and therefore, no pres sure component to the total energy as s hown in F igure 4.
T otal energy line
hf v2 2g
T he total energy at any point along a conduit flowing partly full can be defined by the E nergy equation: H = y + v2/2g W here y - depth of flow in m v - velocity in m/s g - gravitational cons tant in m/s /s
Datum
FIG 4: CONDUIT FLOWING PARTLY FULL As there is no pres s ure in s uch a conduit, the fluid can only flow downhill and the s ys tem is clas sified as a gravity pipeline.
F igures 3 and 4 s how s ys tems where the pipe invert, hydraulic grade line or water s urface and the total energy line are all parallel. T his is called uniform flow and the only energy los s es are due to friction. However if there are any transitions s uch as changes in vertical or horizontal alignment, or the cros s ectional s hape of the conduit then thes e will also caus e energy los s es due to the liquid expanding or contracting. T he means of determining the hydraulic properties of conduits flowing under pres s ure and thos e flowing partly full, as open channels are unders tandably different. A further factor that needs to be considered is the hydraulic length of the conduit.
Example 2: Given a flow of 200 l/s and a slope of 1 m in 2 000 m, determine the diameter of a concrete pipe to flow half full. Use n = 0,011 F rom F igure 6 for d/D = 0.5 ; Q full = Q/0.5 = 200/0.5 = 400 l/s and from F igure 5 for Q = 400 l/s and a s lope of 1 m in 2 000 m, D = 900 mm.
L FIGURE 7: FACTORS INFLUENCING FLOW THROUGH CULVERTS W here HW - headwater or energy level at inlet in m T W - tailwater or energy level at outlet in m H - total energy los s between inlet and outlet in m D - internal diameter or height of conduit in m L - length of conduit in m S0 - culvert gradient in m/m T here are s everal different types of culvert flow, depending on whether the control is located at the inlet, along the barrel or at the outlet. Inlet control occurs when the inlet s ize, s hape and configuration controls the volume of water that can enter the culvert. In other words when the capacity of the inlet is les s than the capacity of the barrel and there is a free dis charge downs tream of the culvert.
HW
TW
HW
TW
(a) uns ubmerged inlet (b) s ubmerged inlet FIGURE 8: INLET CONTROL CONDITION AND VARIATIONS T his happens when the slope of the culvert is s teeper than the critical slope. W hen the conduit flows with an uns ubmerged inlet, the flow pas s es through critical depth at the entrance to the culvert. W hen the culvert flows with a s ubmerged inlet, which will occur when HW /D > 1.5, the inlet will act as an orifice and the flow will contracted as if flowing through a sluice gate. T he major energy los s will be at the culvert inlet. T he total energy through the culvert and the outlet velocity can be calculated from the critical or contracted depth at the entrance.
Barrel control occurs when the barrel s ize, roughnes s and s hape controls the volume of water that which can flow through the culvert. In other words when the capacity of the barrel is les s than the capacity of the inlet and the dis charge downs tream of it is free. T his happens when the s lope of the culvert is flatter than critical s lope and the cons triction at the entrance is drowned out by the flow through the barrel. T he major energy los s will be at the outlet. T he water s urface will pas s through critical depth at the outlet and the outlet energy level and velocity can be calculated from this , as des cribed below.
HW
H TW
HW
H TW
(a) Uns ubmerged inlet (b) S ubmerged inlet FIGURE 9: BARREL CONTROL CONDITION AND VARIATIONS Outlet control occurs when the water level downs tream of the culvert controls the volume of water that can flow through the culvert by drowning out either inlet or barrel control conditions . In other words when the capacity of the barrel or the inlet cannot be realised becaus e there is no free dis charge downs tream of the culvert.
H HW H TW HW TW
(a) Uns ubmerged inlet (b) S ubmerged inlet FIGURE 10: OUTLET CONTROL CONDITION AND VARIATIONS T he water s urface will not pas s through critical depth at any section of the culvert hence there are no s ections where there is a fixed depth dis charge relations hip. T he major energy los s will be at the outlet. T he capacity and headwater depths for the different types of culvert flow can be determined by calculation or from nomographs .
T AB LE 7:AP P R OXIMAT E F LOW LIT R E S /S E C P E R HE C T AR E :V AR IOUS C ONDIT IONS Soil Type <750 C lays Loams S andy s oils 0.45 0.60 0.85 Rainfall per annum mm 750 1000 1000 1200 0.55 0.80 1.10 0.75 1.00 1.50 >1200 1.20 1.70 2.40
T he optimum s pacing and depth of a s ubs oil drain is largely dependent on the type of s oil. W here large areas are to be drained T able 8, that gives the capacity of porous pipes and T able 9, that gives a guide to s pacing in metres for various s oils and drain ins tallation depths can be us ed to es timate the size and spacing of pipes for a s ubs oil drainage s ys tem. T AB LE 8: F LOW C AP AC IT Y OF P OR OUS P IP E S IN LIT R E S P E R S E C OND Internal diameter (mm) 100 150 200 300 0.001 1.2 3.6 8.3 25.8 Slope of pipe in m/m 0.005 0.01 0.05 2.7 8.1 18.3 57.8 3.9 11.4 26.1 81.9 8.6 25.8 58.9 183.3 0.10 12.2 36.4 82.8 258.3
Although a slope of 0.001 is theoretically pos sible, slopes of les s than 0.005 are not practical. T he s pacing of drains , not hydraulic cons iderations , normally controls the des ign of a s ys tem. T AB LE 9: P OR OUS P IP E S P AC ING IN ME T R E S F OR DIF F E R E NT S OIL T Y P E S Pipe depth in m 0.6 0.9 0.9 1.2 Clays 7 10 9 12 Loams 10 12 12 - 15 Sandy clay 12 25 25 30
Although the tables only indicate sizes up to 300 mm in diameter, larger s izes may be available from certain pipe manufacturers . As there is no S outh African s tandard for thes e pipes the porosity s tandards from B S 1194, as given in T able 10 are us ed. T he manufacturers s hould be as ked for details of the crus hing s trengths for porous pipes . T AB LE 10: P OR OS IT Y V ALUE S IN LIT R E P E R S E C P E R ME T R E OF P IP E LE NG T H Pipe diameter in mm P oros ity litre per s ec per metre length 100 1.0 150 2.0 200 2.5 300 5.0
T o us e the tables in this handbook, it is neces s ary to unders tand the various methods of ins talling buried conduits . T he two bas ic ins tallation types and the corresponding loading conditions are the trench and the embankment conditions . T hes e are defined by whether the frictional forces developed between the column of earth on top of the conduit and thos e adjacent to it reduce or increas e the load that the conduit has to carry. A us eful concept is that of the geos tatic or pris m load. T his is the mas s of earth directly above the conduit as s uming that there is no friction between this column of material and the columns of earth either s ide of the conduit. T he geos tatic load will have a value between that of the trench and embankment condition. T hes e loading conditions are illus trated in F igure 13 below.
F riction zero
4.2.1.Trench condition
T he trench condition occurs when the conduit is placed in a trench that has been excavated into the undis turbed s oil. W ith a trench ins tallation the frictional forces that develop between the column of earth in the trench and the trench walls act upwards and reduce the load that the conduit has to carry. As a res ult the load on the conduit will be les s than the mas s of the material in the trench above it. T he load on the conduit is calculated from the formula: W = C t w B t2 W here: W - load of fill material in kN/m w - unit load of fill material in kN/m3 B t - trench width on top of conduit in m C t - coefficient that is function of fill material, trench width and fill height T he formula indicates the importance of the trench width B t that s hould always be kept to a practical minimum. As the trench width is increas ed s o is the load on the conduit. At a certain stage the trench walls are s o far away from the conduit that they no longer help it carry the load. T he load on the conduit will then be the same as the embankment load. If the trench width exceeds this value the load will not increas e any more. T his limiting value of B t at which no further load is transmitted to the conduit, is called the transition width. T he determination of the transition width is covered in the s pecialis t literature. It is s afe to as s ume that any trench width that gives loads in exces s of thos e given by the embankment condition exceeds the transition width. E arth loads due to trench loading on circular pipe where the trench widths and nominal pipe diameters are s pecified are given in T able 11. E arth loads due to trench loading on conduits where the trench widths are s pecified but the conduit dimens ions are not are given in T able 12. T AB LE 11: T R E NC H LOADS ON C IR C ULAR P IP E IN K N/M; NON-C OHE S IV E S OIL (G R OUP NO 1 S ANS 10102 P AR T 1); T R E NC H W IDT HS S ANS 1200 DB .
Diameter mm 225 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 825 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 Notes
Trench width m 0.859 0.945 1.031 1.118 1.204 1.290 1.376 1.663 1.749 1.835 2.208 2.380 2.620 2.800 2.980 3.360
Height of backfill above top of pipe in metres 0.6 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 19 20 21 26 28 31 33 35 39 1.0 15 17 18 20 22 23 25 31 32 34 42 45 50 53 57 65 1.5 21 23 26 28 31 33 36 44 47 50 61 66 73 78 84 95 2.0 26 29 32 36 39 42 46 57 61 64 79 86 95 102 109 125 2.5 30 34 38 42 47 51 55 69 73 77 96 104 116 125 134 153 3.0 34 39 43 48 53 58 63 80 85 90 112 122 136 147 157 180 3.5 37 42 48 54 59 65 70 90 95 101 127 138 155 167 180 206 4.0 40 46 52 58 64 71 77 99 105 112 141 154 173 187 201 231 5.0 44 51 59 66 74 81 89 115 123 131 167 183 207 224 242 279 6.0 48 56 64 72 81 90 99 129 139 148 190 209 237 258 278 323 7.0 50 59 68 77 87 97 107 141 152 163 210 233 264 288 312 363
1) F or nominal pipe diameters 1200mm the external diameter has been taken as 1.15 times the nominal diameter; for larger sizes 1.2 times the nominal diameter. 1. T able 11 for non-cohesive s oil; gravel or s and; density = 20 kN/m3 and K = 0,19. 2. T he table is bas ed on the trench widths recommended in S ANS 1200DB . 3. If the s oil unit weight is known, the loads from the table may be adjus ted as follows : Load on pipe = load from table x unit weight of s oil / 20 4. T his P rocedure valid only if the s oil properties other than unit weight do not change. T AB LE 12: LOADS ON ANY C ONDUIT IN K N/M F OR G IV E N T R E NC H W IDT HS Trench Height of Backfill above top of pipe in metres Width 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 in m 0.75 8 13 18 22 25 28 30 32 36 38 39 1.00 11 18 25 31 37 42 46 50 56 61 64 1.25 14 23 32 41 49 56 62 68 78 86 92 1.50 17 28 40 51 61 70 79 87 100 112 122 2.00 23 38 55 70 85 99 112 125 147 167 184 2.50 29 47 69 90 110 129 147 164 195 223 249 3.00 35 57 84 110 135 159 181 203 243 281 315 3.50 41 67 99 130 160 188 216 242 292 339 382 4.00 47 77 114 150 185 218 250 282 342 397 450 5.00 59 97 144 190 234 278 320 361 440 515 587 Note that T able 12 is for the s ame ins tallation conditions s oil properties us ed in T able 11.
4.2.2.Embankment condition
In this condition the conduit is ins talled at ground level and is covered with fill material. All the earth s urrounding the conduit is homogeneous and the compaction is uniform. W ith
an embankment ins tallation the frictional forces that develop between the column of earth directly above the conduit and the columns of earth adjacent to the conduit, act downwards and increas e the load that the conduit has to carry. T he load on the conduit will be greater than the mas s of the material directly above it due to the frictional forces that develop. In addition the founding material under the conduit could yield and partly reduce the load that it has to carry. T he load on a conduit is calculated from the formula: W = w C e Bc 2 W here W - load on pipe in kN/m w - unit load on fill material in kN/m3 B c - overall diameter of pipe C e-coefficient that is function of fill material, conduit outside width, fill height, projection ratio, and founding conditions T he projection ratio is a meas ure of the proportion of the conduit over which lateral earth pres s ure is effective. It is calculated from p = x / B c , where x -height that conduit projects above or below the natural ground level T he s ettlement ratio, designated as rs , is a meas ure of the amount that the founding material under the conduit s ettles . V alues of this parameter are given in table 13 below. T AB LE 13: V ALUE S OF S E T T LE ME NT R AT IO Material type S ettlement ratio, rs Rock or 1.0 Unyielding soil 1.0 Normal soil 0.7 Yielding soil 0.3
T he various types of embankment condition, illus trated in F igure 16 are: P os itive projection where top of the conduit projects above the natural ground level. Zero projection where the top of conduit is level with natural ground. T he load on the pipe is the geos tatic load. T his als o applies if the s ide fill to a s ub-trench is compacted to the s ame dens ity as the undis turbed soil in which the trench has been dug. Negative projection where top of the conduit is below the natural ground level. As the trench depth increas es , this condition approaches a complete trench condition.
H x x BC
FIGURE 16:TYPES OF EMBANKMENT INSTALLATION. E arth loads due to embankment loading on circular pipes are given in T able 14 below.
T AB LE 14: P OS IT IV E P R OJ E C T ION E MB ANK ME NT LOADING IN K N/M ON A B UR IE D C ONDUIT ; NON-C OHE S IV E MAT E R IAL; DE NS IT Y 20 K N/M3, K = 0.19; P R S = 0.7 Diameter mm 0.6 1.0 Height of backfill above top of pipe in metres 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
225 5 9 13 17 22 26 31 35 44 52 61 300 6 12 17 23 29 35 41 47 58 70 82 375 7 14 22 29 36 44 51 58 73 87 102 450 8 15 26 35 44 52 61 70 87 105 122 525 9 17 30 41 51 61 71 82 102 122 143 600 10 18 32 47 58 70 82 93 117 140 163 675 11 20 35 52 66 79 92 105 131 157 184 750 12 22 37 56 73 87 102 117 146 175 204 825 13 23 39 59 80 96 112 128 160 192 224 900 14 25 42 61 85 105 122 140 175 210 245 1050 16 28 46 68 92 121 143 163 204 245 286 1200 18 32 51 74 100 129 163 187 233 280 327 1350 21 37 58 83 111 142 177 216 274 329 383 1500 23 40 64 90 119 151 187 228 304 365 426 1650 25 44 69 97 127 161 199 240 335 402 468 1800 27 47 74 104 136 171 210 252 348 438 511 Notes : 1) T able 14 compiled for non-cohesive material with density of 20 kN/m3 and prs = 1.0 2) T able can be us ed for other s oil densities by multiplying load by actual density /20 3) T able can be us ed for different values of prs as follows : (a) If load value falls in s haded area, it may be us ed irres pective of the prs value. (b) If load value to the right of s haded area, multiply the value by following factors : Prs F actor 1.0 1.00 0.7 0.94 0.5 0.90 0.3 0.83 0.1 0.74
Example 1. Determination of backfill load under the following conditions: Embankment installation, positive projection. Pipe D = 525 mm; Projection ratio: x/D = 0.7; Foundation material: rock (rs = 1); Density of fill: 1 750 kg/m3; Height of fill above top of pipe: 3.5 m. prs = 0,7 *1 = 0.7; T able 14 applicable with correction for density only. F or D = 525 mm and height = 3.5 m, Load on pipe = 68.0 kN/m. Applying density correction, the actual load on pipe, W = 68(1750/2000) = 59.5 kN/m. Example 2Determination of backfill load under the following conditions: Embankment installation, positive projection; Pipe D = 750 mm; Projection ratio = 0.70; Foundation material: ordinary soil: (rs = 0.7); Density of fill: 1 600 kg/m3; Height of fill above top of pipe = 2.5 m; prs = 0.7 x 0.7 = 0.49 (say 0.5) F rom T able 14 for D = 750 mm and height = 2.5; Load on pipe = 67 kN/m; Applying dens ity correction, W = 67(1600/2000) = 53.6 kN/m. S ince prs = 0.5 and the value of load falls to the right of the heavy line, actual load on pipe is : W = 53.6 x 0.95 = 50.9 kN/m
FIGURE 17: SPECIAL INSTALLATIONS T he procedure for calculating the depth of s ub-trench is given in S ANS 10102 P art I. T he des igner should not us e this procedure without firs t doing a detailed s tudy.
4.2.4.Jacked Installation
W hen conduits are to be placed under exis ting roadways , railways or other areas that are already developed trench digging can be extremely dis ruptive and the indirect cos ts enormous . An alternative to this is the jacking ins tallation technique. W hen a conduit is jacked the mas s of the earth above the pipe is reduced by both friction and cohesion that develop between the columns of earth directly on top of the conduit and those columns of earth either side of it.
T his technique involves : E xcavating a pit at the begging and end of the propos ed line. C ons tructing a launching pad in the entry pit P us hing a jacking s hield against the face of the pit T unnelling through the s oil while being protected by the jacking s hield by making an excavation slightly larger than the s hield jus t ahead of it P us hing conduits into the tunnel as it progres ses G routing the s pace left between the outside of the conduit and the tunnel. W ith a jacked ins tallation the vertical load on the conduits will be significantly les s than that experienced in a trench ins tallation. T his is becaus e the load is dependant on the outs ide dimens ion of the conduit and not the trench width and as the s oil above the conduits is undis turbed the load is reduced by both cohesion and friction. Once the fill height over the conduit exceeds about 10 times its outs ide width full arching will take place and no matter how much higher the fill there will be no further increas e in the load that the conduit has to carry.
1.8
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.8
1.2
2.0 6.0 to26.0 2.0
FIGURE 18: TRAFFIC LOADING ON ROADS F or the NB loading, 1 unit = 2.5 kN per wheel = 10 kN per axle and = 40 kN per vehicle. F or the NB 36 vehicle = 90 kN per wheel = 360 kN per axle.
W hen the effect of thes e loads is considered on buried conduits an allowance for impact for impact s hould be made. F or the typical highway vehicle this is us ually taken as 1.15. W here greater impact is expected due to a combination of high speed, rough s urface and hard s us pension, an impact factor up to 1.4 could be applied. T he effective contact area for thes e wheels is taken as 0.2 m x 0.5 m in direction of and trans vers e to direction of travel respectively. T he loads on pipes due to 40 kN wheel loads with the configuration s hown in F igure 16(a) are given in T able 15. T he table can be used for any wheel load (P ) provided that the wheel arrangement is the s ame and the load multiplied by P /4. T AB LE 15: LOADS IN K N/M ON B UR IE D C ONDUIT F R OM G R OUP OF 40 K N W HE E LS Pipe I/D mm 0.6 8.1 10.2 12.2 14.2 16.3 18.3 20.4 22.4 24.5 28.5 32.6 38.3 42.6 46.8 51.1 1.0 4.78 5.97 7.16 8.36 9.55 10.7 11.9 13.1 14.3 16.7 19.1 22.4 24.9 27.4 29.9 1.5 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.7 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.9 11.4 13.3 14.8 16.3 17.8 Fill height over pipes in m 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.6 2.3 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.7 2.8 2.0 1.5 1.1 0.9 3.3 2.3 1.7 13.3 1.0 3.7 2.7 2.0 1.5 1.2 4.2 3.0 2.2 1.7 1.4 4.7 3.3 2.5 1.9 1.5 5.2 3.7 2.7 2.1 1.7 5.6 4.0 3.0 2.3 1.8 6.6 4.7 3.5 2.7 2.1 7.5 5.3 4.0 3.1 2.5 8.8 6.3 4.7 3.6 2.9 9.8 7.0 5.2 4.0 3.2 10.8 7.7 5.7 4.4 3.5 11.8 8.4 6.3 4.9 3.9 5.0 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.6 6.0 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.9 7.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.6 1.4
300 375 456 525 600 675 750 825 900 1 050 1 200 1 350 1 500 1 650 1 800 Notes : 1. No impact factor has been included. 2. Impact s hould certainly be considered for low fills (<diameter of pipe). 3. T he tables do not apply to pipes on concrete bedding. 4. W here the cover over the pipe is les s than half the outside pipe diameter the bedding factor for the live load mus t be reduced. S pecial precautions as concrete encas ement may be neces s ary. T he loads given in T MH7 for the design of s tructures under major roads are: Normal loading (NA) Abnormal loading (NB ) S uper loading (NC ) As s tated above the NB 36 loading is us ually the critical one for buried conduits . T MH7 allows an equivalent point load to be us ed for NB loading that is dependant upon the outs ide width and length of the conduit. F or the NB 36 loads this is expres s ed as : Q b = 1.25(90 + 12L s 1.8 ) W here Q b - equivalent point load L s - effective s pan of conduit in m
T AB LE 16: LOADS IN K N/M ON B UR IE D P IP E S F R OM NB 36 G R OUP OF W HE E LS FILL HEIGHT OVER PIPES IN M PIPE I/D PIPE OD NB36 PT mm mm 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 LOAD 300 0.345 26 12 7 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 114 375 0.431 31 15 8 5 3 2 2 1 1 1 0 115 456 0.518 35 17 10 6 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 116 525 0.604 39 19 11 7 5 3 2 2 1 1 1 117 600 0.690 43 22 12 8 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 118 675 0.776 46 24 14 9 6 4 3 2 2 1 1 120 750 0.863 49 25 15 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 121 825 0.949 52 27 17 10 7 5 4 3 2 1 1 123 900 1.035 55 29 18 11 8 6 4 3 2 2 1 125 1 050 1.208 60 33 21 13 9 7 5 4 3 2 1 129 1 200 1.380 64 36 24 15 10 8 6 5 3 2 2 133 1 350 1.620 67 40 28 18 12 9 7 5 4 3 2 138 1 500 1.800 67 43 31 20 14 10 8 6 4 3 2 144 1 650 1.980 68 46 34 22 15 11 9 7 5 3 3 149 1 800 2.160 69 49 37 24 17 13 10 8 5 4 3 156 Notes 1. T he NB 36 vehicle travels slowly and generally no impact needs to be considered. 2. Under certain conditions the NB 24 vehicle could be us ed for minor roads.
b) Uniform reaction
c) P arabolic reaction
FIGURE 19 FACTORY STRENGTH AS MODEL OF INSTALLED LOAD ON PIPE B edding factors have been derived for standard bedding clas s es and are des cribed in detail in S ection 6 that follows . T he bedding factors for a trench ins tallation as s ume that there is a vertical reaction only and no lateral s upport to the pipe. F or an embankment ins tallation lateral s upport is taken into account and hence the embankment bedding factors are s omewhat higher than those us ed for a trench ins tallation. F or mos t ins tallations the bedding factors given in T able 17 below are adequate. T AB LE 17: B E DDING F AC T OR S F OR C ONC R E T E P IP E Class Angle A 180 A 180 B 180 C 60 D 0 Note: 1) C las s D bedding s hould only be us ed when s uitable bedding material is not available. 2) C las s A bedding s hould not be us ed unles s there are s pecial requirements to be met. 3) F or zero and negative projection ins tallations us e trench bedding factors . F or positive projection conditions , where greater accuracy is required the bedding factors can be calculated using the procedure des cribed in S ection 6. Bedding details Material R einforced concrete C oncrete G ranular G ranular G ranular Installation details Trench Embankment 3.4 4.8 2.6 3.9 2.0 2.4 1.5 2.0 1.1 1.2
5.4.1.External load
T he relations hip between the factory tes t load and ins talled field load is given by the equation developed by Mars ton and S pangler, namely: W T = W I F S /B F W here W T - required proof load for 0.25 mm crack W I - external load (kN/m) F S - s afety factor B F - bedding factor T he pipe clas s is s elected s o that: WT < S W here S - proof load of a s tandard D-load clas s pipe (kN/m)
5.4.2.Internal pressure
T he s election of the pres s ure clas s is made as follows : t = p x FS W here t - required tes t pres s ure (kP a) p - design pres sure in pipeline F S - factor of s afety T he pipe clas s is s elected s o that t <T W here T - tes t pres s ure of standard pres s ure clas s pipe (kP a)
Bedding class
Bedding
Required
Required
Standard
factor
C B A non reinforced A reinforced Example 2 1.5 2.0 2.6 3.4
Test
61.7 46.3 35.6 27.2
D-load
68.6 51.4 39.6 30.3
D-load
75 75 50 50
Determination of strength of a 1 200 mm internal diameter pipe culvert to be installed under the following conditions: Embankment installation Positive projection: projection ratio p = 0.7 Foundation material: rock (rs = 1) Height of fill above top of pipe: 2.5 m Backfill density: 1 650 kg/m3. Light traffic conditions are expected, assume 4 000 kg maximum wheel load Class B bedding Non-corrosive conditions F or a value of prs = 0.7 x 1.0 = 0.7, T able 10 gives a backfill load = (1650/2000) x 147 = 121.3 kN/m and from T able 12 traffic load = 4.1 kN/m. T he factor of s afety is 1 (S ee 4.6) T he required proof load, will be: W T = ((earth load + live load) x S F )/ B F =((121.3 + 4.1) x 1)/ 2.4 = 52.3 kN/m A clas s 50D pipe (60 kN/m load s hould be s pecified. Example 3 A 300 mm internal diameter pressure pipeline is to be installed in a trench under the following conditions: The maximum pressure expected in the line including surge and water hammer is: 150 kPa Trench width : 900 mm Height of fill: 1.5 m Material: wet sand (density 2 000 kg/m3) Bedding: Class C Non-corrosive conditions F rom T able 4 for trench width 900 mm and height 1.5 m; Load on pipe = 20 kN/m C las s C bedding factor = 1.5 and F actor of safety = 1.0 (S ee section 4.6) R equired pipe s trength W T = ((20 / 1.5) x 1 = 13.3 kN/m As s ume a C las s 50D pipe is us ed (15 kN/m proof load). T o determine the minimum res istance to internal hydraulic pres s ure, the following formula is applied: T = t / (1-(W T / S ) 2) (s ee P ar 4.7.3) where t = 150 kP a, W T = 13.3 kN/m and S = 15.0 kN/m T herefore T = 150 / (1-(13.3 / 15) 2) = 700 kP a T he pipe s pecification s hould be C las s T 8 (tes t pres s ure 800 kP a) and C las s 50D. Alternative clas s es could be determined by s tarting with a 100D pipe (30 kN/m) T = 150 / (1-(13.3 / 30) 2) = 187 kP a In this design the pipe s pecification would be T 2 (200 kP a) and C las s 100D that would probably be more economic than the firs t alternative.
6. BEDDING
6.1. GENERAL
T he bedding s upporting a pipe trans fers the vertical load on the pipe to the foundation. It als o provides a uniform s upport along the pipeline and prevents any load concentrations on the pipe due to irregularities in the foundation. T he ability of a rigid pipe to carry field loads that are larger than the tes t load depends on the degree of s upport given to the pipe by the bedding. T he ratio between the load that a pipe can s upport on a particular type of bedding, and the tes t load is called the bedding factor. W hen s electing granular materials for C las s B , C and D beddings the des igner mus t cons ider the interface between the bedding material and the surrounding natural material. P recautions mus t be taken to prevent the ingres s of fine material into the bedding layer, as this will res ult in a los s of support to the pipe.
F ormation level
Main backfill
B edding blanket
B edding cradle R eworked foundation T rench bottom FIGURE 20: TERMINOLOGY FOR PIPE BEDDING
Bedding Factor - Bf
Bedding Angle - FIGURE 21: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BEDDING FACTOR AND BEDDING ANGLE
6.2.2.Class A beddings
T he concrete beddings commonly us ed are given in F igure 22. T he bedding width s hall not be les s than B c + 200 mm but may extend the full width of the trench. S teel reinforcement if us ed mus t not be les s than 0.4 % of the concrete cros s -s ection and mus t be placed trans versely beneath the pipe and as clos e to it as pos sible allowing for the minimum cover required for reinforced concrete. T he concrete shall have a 28-day cube s trength of not les s than 20 MP a.
300
300
Bc
B c /4 B c /4
Bc
Bc B c /4 B c /4
B c+200 min
(c) F or W et C onditions
B c+200 min
100
W hen clas s A bedding is placed over under pipes it s hould have a minimum thicknes s of B c/4. If this cannot be achieved then the concrete should be reinforced.
B c+200 min
100
Bc B c /2 B c /4
FIGURE 23: CLASS A TRENCH BEDDINGS OVER PIPES T he clas s A bedding factors are: Unreinforced 2.6 0.4% Reinforcement 3.4 1.0% Reinforcement 4.8
T hes e factors are slightly higher than the values given in F igure 21 as it is as s umed that the C las s A concrete bedding is s tiffer than the pipe it s upports. As a res ult the pres sure under the pipe will have an inverse parabolic dis tribution, giving a lower bending moment at the pipe invert than the uniform dis tribution.
6.2.3.Class B Beddings
300
300
300
Bc
B c /4
Bc
B c /4 0,7 Bc
B cB c
FIGURE 24: CLASS B TRENCH BEDDINGS T he C las s B G ranular bedding commonly us ed is s hown in F igure 24(a). T he bedding angle is 180 and the pres s ure dis tribution under the pipe is as s umed to be parabolic. T he s election, placement and compaction of the granular material mus t be carried out s o that this as s umption is not compromis ed. T he cons truction detail of the s haped s ub-grade bedding with a granular curtain is s hown in F igure 24(b). T he width of the bedding is 0.7 B c (90 bedding angle) and the pres s ure dis tribution under the pipe is as sumed to be uniform. T he depth of the fine granular blanket mus t not be les s than 50 mm and the s ide fill mus t be well compacted. T he C las s B bedding factors are: Granular Bedding 2.0 Shaped Sub-grade 2.0 Fully Encased 2.2
6.2.4.Class C beddings
A reduced bedding factor is as s umed, to allow for a poorer quality of bedding cradle material and compaction and a s maller bedding angle than used with C las s B beddings . T he s election, placement and compaction of the granular material mus t be carried out s o that this as s umption is not compromis ed. Details are given in F igure 25 below.
150
150
150
Bc B c /8
Bc B c /8
0,5 Bc
Bc
FIGURE 25: CLASS C BEDDINGS W hen a granular cradle is us ed the bedding angle is 90 and the pres s ure dis tribution is as s umed to be parabolic. T he cons truction detail of this s haped s ub-grade bedding is shown in F igure 25(b). T he bottom of the trench is compacted, levelled and s haped s o as to s upport the pipe barrel over a width of 0.5 B c (60 bedding angle). No blanket is provided and the backfill around the pipe is lightly compacted. T he cons truction detail of the flat granular bedding is s hown in F igure 25(c). It is as s umed that the pipe barrel penetrates the bedding material to achieve a s upport angle of angle of at eas t 45 with a uniform pres s ure dis tribution under the pipe. A s uitable material for this type of bedding is a s ingle sized gravel or aggregate consis ting of rounded particles that can flow easily. C rus hed aggregates containing a high percentage of angular particles , are more s table and will minimis e the settlement of the pipe into the bedding material. It is important that the properties of the material are matched to the size and acceptable s ettlement of the pipe. T he bedding factors for clas s C granular beddings are: Granular support angle 60 1.5 Shaped sub-grade 1.5 Uncompacted granular 1.5 Granular support angle 90 1.7
6.2.5.Class D beddings
No s pecial precautions are required for this clas s of bedding except that the s ub-grade mus t fully s upport the pipe in the longitudinal direction and that holes mus t be excavated in the floor of the trench to accommodate s ockets or joints that have a diameter greater than that of the pipe barrel. Load concentrations on the pipe mus t be avoided. T his clas s of bedding is not s uitable in situations where the founding conditions consis t of very hard or very soft insitu material s uch as rock, hard gravel or s oft clay.
150
150
Bc
Bc
FIGURE 26: CLASS D TRENCH BEDDINGS T he cons truction detail of the flat s ub-grade bedding is s hown in F igure 26(a). W here the flat s ub-grade s urface is not s uitable as bedding it s hould be improved by compacting and levelling a layer of s uitably graded granular material. T his layer will provide uniform s upport along the length of the pipe, without the ris k of load concentrations occurring (see F igure 26(b)). T he type D beddings s hould only be us ed for s maller diameter pipes where the pipe cos t is much les s than the total ins tallation cos t. T he bedding factor for clas s D beddings in a trench or negative projection installation is 1.1
6.3.2.Spanglers Method
T he bedding factor applicable to positive projection ins tallations is calculated using formula below.
Bf
A N x q
where A - 1.431 for circular pipes N - is obtained from T able 14 x - is obtained from T able 15 q - is calculated from formula below mK H m q Cc Bc 2 W here q - ratio of total lateral pres s ure to total vertical load K - R ankines coefficient of active earth pres sure, us ually taken as 0.33 C c - fill load coefficient for positive projection m - proportion of B c over which lateral pres s ure is effective. S ee F igure 22. H - fill height over pipe
T AB LE 14 V ALUE S OF N F OR P OS IT IV E P R OJ E C T ION B E DDING S Type of bedding C las s C las s C las s C las s C las s A res trained A unres trained B C D Value of N 0.421 0.505 0.707 0.840 1.310 Note: R einforced or plain concrete beddings cast agains t s table rock, are res trained
T AB LE 15: V ALUE S OF x F OR P OS IT IV E P R OJ E C T ION B E DDING S Value of m 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 Concrete 0.150 0.743 0.856 0.811 0.678 0.638 Other 0.000 0.217 0.423 0.594 0.655 0.638
Note: T he parameter x is a function of the proportion of the pipe over which active lateral pres s ure is effective.
Bc
mB c 0.3B c B c/4
Bc
mB c B c/4 B c/4
Bc
mB c
Bc
mB c
Bc
mB c
S oilcrete (a) S oilcrete as gap filler FIGURE 29: USE OF SOILCRETE AROUND PIPES T he purpos e of the S oilcrete is to trans fer the load on the pipe to the surrounding soil. As it is s tronger than s oil it does not matter if there are s mall cracks in it. T he important is sue is that the material is s table and s upports the pipes. T o ens ure that there is s upport all around the pipe this material needs to be flowable and vibrated once placed. T o prevent floatation the s oilcrete is placed in two s tages , the firs t should not be higher than a sixth of the pipe OD. T he s econd s tage can be placed as s oon as the initial s et has taken place. (W hen a man can walk on it.) for installation details reference s hould be made to the Ins tallation Manual that is a companion publication to this one. W hen s oilcrete is used as a gap filler the dis tance between the pipe and excavated material s hould be 75 mm. W hen it is us ed as bedding the dimens ions s hould be the s ame as thos e used for concrete bedding. T he bedding factors for s oilcrete beddings will depend on the bedding angle and can be taken from the curve for concrete on F igure 21. (b) S oilcrete as bedding
7. PIPE JOINTING
7.1. JOINT TYPES
T he function of the joint is to provide flexibility and s ealing for the pipeline. J oints are des igned to cope with the movement that occur due to the s econdary forces within the s oil mas s . T here are four types of pipe joints , namely, butt (or plain ended), interlocking (or Ogee), spigot and s ocket and in-the-wall joints . T hes e are us ed for different applications that are determined by the amount of movement to be tolerated and the importance of keeping the pipeline sealed.
(a) B utt
(b) Interlocking
(d) In-the-wall
T he amount of movement that can be tolerated at a joint will depend on the pipe size and the manufacturers details . T he radius of the curve is dependent on the angular deflection that is permitted for each pipe size. T ypical deflections and curve radii are given in T able 29. S pecific projects s hould be dis cus sed with the manufacturer concerned. T AB LE 29: ANG ULAR DE F LE C T IONS AND C UR V E R ADII Nominal Pipe Diameter - mm 300 - 375 450 - 600 675 - 900 1 050 - 1 200 1 350 1 800 Permissible Degrees 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50 Minimum Radius - m 70 93 140 186 280
T he radius of curve that can be negotiated is directly proportional to the pipes ' effective length. T he values in this table were calculated us ing an effective pipe length of 2.44m. If a different length is used the radius from the table s hould be corrected by the ratio of the lengths . W here s harp curves in exces s of thes e values are required s pecial pipes with deflected s pigots or s ockets , or radius pipe can be produced. T his s hould be dis cus s ed with the manufacturers . W hen a curve is being negotiated, the pipes mus t firs t be fully jointed in a s traight line and only then deflected. T he s pigot and s ocket pipe has traditionally been made with a rolling rubber ring. T he S outh African s tandard for rubber rings is S ANS 974-1: Rubber joint rings (non-cellular) Part 1: Joint rings for use in water, sewer and drainage systems.
8. FLOATATION
8.1. GENERAL
Any buried pipeline, even when full of water will weigh les s than the s oil that it dis placed. Hence there will be a tendency for pipelines to lift rather than s ettle. W hen the groundwater level is higher than the bottom of the pipeline the buoyancy forces can lift the pipeline due to. If thes e conditions can occur either during the ins tallation or operation of the pipeline the designer should check that the pipeline will not float off its bedding. S AB S 0102 P art II (? , p51) lis ts s everal conditions that could give rise to this , namely: F looding of trench to cons olidate backfill P ipelines in flood plains or under man-made lakes that will be below groundwater level S ub aqueous pipelines P ipelines in other areas that may be s ubject to a high water table If any of thes e exis t the designer s hould calculate the forces to es tablis h whether or not floatation will be a problem. T hes e forces are: W eight of pipe W eight of water dis placed by pipe W eight of load carried in pipe W eight of any backfill over the pipe T wo floatation conditions can occur, namely: P ipeline is s ubmerged partly or fully before backfilling P ipeline becomes s ubmerged after backfilling
(24)
9. SEWER CORROSION
9.1. CORROSION MECHANISM
C oncrete is the mos t frequently used material for the manufacture of outfall sewers . Under certain conditions concrete s ewers may be s ubject to corrosion from s ulphuric acid (H 2S O 4) formed as a res ult of bacterial action. T he physical appearance of corrosion is firs t detected as a white efflores cence above the water line, and it takes s everal months before this s tarts. T hereafter deterioration may be rapid in which cas e the concrete s urface becomes s oft and putty-like and there is aggregate fallout. T here are three s ets of factors contributing to this phenomenon, thos e res ulting in the generation of the gas hydrogen s ulphide (H 2S ) in the effluent thos e resulting in the release of H 2S from the effluent and thos e res ulting in the biogenic formation of H 2S O 4 on the s ewer walls . T hes e are illus trated in figure 33 below.
H 2S O 4 F OR MAT ION
H 2S R E LE AS E
H 2S G E NE R AT ION
FIGURE 33: CORROSION MECHANISM T he mos t important factors contributing to H 2S generation in the effluent are: R etention time in s ewer V elocities that are not self cleansing S ilt accumulation T emperature B iochemical oxygen demand (B OD) Dis s olved oxygen (DO) in effluent Dis s olved S ulphides (DS ) in effluent E ffluent pH. T he mos t important factors contributing to H 2S releas e from the effluent are: C oncentration of H 2S in effluent High velocities and turbulence T he mos t important factors contributing to H 2S O 4 formation on the s ewer walls are: C oncentration of H 2S in s ewer atmos phere R ate of acid formation Amount of mois ture on s ewer walls R ate of acid runoff
If there is ins ufficient oxygen in the effluent the bacteria that live in the slimes layer on the s ewer walls s trip the oxygen from the s ulphates in the effluent to form s ulphides . T he firs t s et of factors influence the rate at which this occurs . W hen there is an imbalance of H 2S in the s ewage and the sewer atmos phere this gas will come out of s olution s o that there is equilibrium. T he s econd set of factors influence this . T he H 2S releas ed into the s ewer atmos phere is abs orbed into the mois ture on the s ewer walls and is oxidised by another s et of bacteria to H 2S O 4. T his is influenced by the third set of factors . T he acid formed then attacks the cement in the concrete above the water line, as it is alkaline. If an inert aggregate is us ed there is aggregate fallout when the binder corrodes . T his expos es more of the binder that in turn is corroded by the acid. T he deterioration of the pipe wall is rapid. If concrete is made us ing a calcareous aggregate, which is alkaline, the acid attack is s pread over both binder and aggregate, the aggregate fallout problem is minimis ed and the rate at which the s ewer wall deteriorates is reduced.
(1)
flux from s tream s urface, g/m /h s - energy gradient of was tewater s tream, m/m v - s tream velocity, m/s J - fraction of DS pres ent as H 2S as function of pH [DS ]-average annual dis s olved sulphide concentration in was tewater, mg/l (0,2 to 0,3 mg/l les s than the total s ulphide concentration) T he abs orption of this H 2S into the mois ture layer on the wall of the s ewer is determined from a modification of the above equation:
sw = s w - H 2S
(2)
flux to the pipe wall, g/m2/h b/P - ratio of was tewater s tream width to perimeter of pipe wall above water s urface. T his as s umes that all the H 2S that is releas ed is absorbed into the mois ture layer. T he concrete corrosion rate can be es timated by calculating the rate at which the H 2S flux to the pipe wall will be oxidis ed to H 2S O 4. 34g of H 2S are required to produce s ufficient H 2S O 4 to neutralis e 100g of alkalinity expres s ed as calcium carbonate (C aC O 3) equivalent. (3p23) If all the
sw
is oxidis ed the annual corrosion rate for the concrete can be predicted from:
C avg = (11.5k/A) s w (3) C avg - average corrosion rate, mm/year K - efficiency coefficient for acid reaction bas ed on the es timated fraction of acid remaining on s ewer wall. May be as low as 0,3 and will approach 1,0 for a complete acid reaction. A - Alkalinity of the cement-bonded material expres s ed as its calcium carbonate (C aC O 3) equivalent; It varies from 0,16 for s iliceous aggregate concrete to 0,9 for calcareous aggregate concrete; 0,4 for mortar linings. 11,5 - converts s w in g/m2/h, into C avg, in mm/year W hen combined with the equation for the flux of H 2S to the wall of a pipe equation is expres s ed as :
[11]
the LF M
Az = 11.5 k s w L (4) z - additional concrete cover, required over reinforcement, (mm) (s acrificial layer) L - required design life of s ewer in years T here are three options for preventing or minimis ing the corrosion in concrete sewers : preventing acid formation modifying concrete protecting concrete. Acid formation can be prevented or minimized by adjus ting the hydraulic design of the s ewer. However, due to physical cons traints this is not always pos s ible and s ome corrosion can be anticipated. F or mos t s ewers modifying the concrete by changing the concrete components and/or providing additional cover to reinforcement is the mos t cos t effective option. P rotecting concrete by using an inert lining or coating is effective, but only economically jus tified when s evere corros ion is predicted.
P has e One was undertaken by the C S IR to monitor the conditions in the s ewer and the performance of traditional s ewer pipe materials in the sewer and subject to pure acid attack in a laboratory. P has e T wo was undertaken by the University of C ape T own (UC T ) to continue monitoring the conditions in the s ewer and to inves tigate ways of s imulating these conditions in a laboratory. P has e T hree is being undertaken jointly by UC T and an independent cons ultant as a continuation of the second phas e and involves meas uring the actual corrosion that occurred during the firs t two phas es ; s upervising the rehabilitation of the experimental s ection; and meas uring the actual corrosion on various new materials to be calibrated for us e in the LF M. At the time of writing the experimental s ection of s ewer has been rehabilitated and the actual corrosion on the s amples ins talled during phase one has been determine and is s ummaris ed in T able 25 below. F rom this table it can be s een that meas ured average corrosion rates after 14 years for all the materials was s omewhat greater than the es timates made following earlier ins pections . As thes e meas urements were taken on the s amples removed from the s ewer and the actual wall thicknes ses could be meas ured, giving greater accuracy. T o date the LF M has been applied to P C concretes only. T he corrosion rates meas ured in this experimental s ection of s ewer mean that the LF M can now be applied where other concretes are us ed. T he effective alkalinity of alternative concretes can now be allocated values in exces s of unity. In particular the effective alkalinity of an inert material can be taken as infinity. T he LF M can now be us ed to calculate the required s acrificial layer thicknes s by incorporating a material factor, MF that is the ratio of corros ion rate for the alternative material being cons idered and a s tandard concrete made from P C and s iliceous aggregate. T AB LE 25: ME AS UR E D & E S T IMAT E D C OR R OS ION AND MAT E R IAL F AC T OR S Material 5 year es timate 12 year es timate 14 year meas ured Material (cement/ T otal Ave T otal Ave T otal Ave factor*** Aggregate) P C /S IL >30 >6,0 >64 >6,0 > 105 > 7.5 1.000 P C /DOL 10 15 2 3 20 30 1,7 2,5 43 3.1 0.400 C AC /S IL 5 10 12 10 15 0,8 1,2 26 1.9 0.250 FC 10 - 12 2 + 20 - 25 1,7 2,1 0.320 C AC /DOL * 3,0 0,6 7,2 0,6 8,4 0,6 0.085 0.025 C AC /ALAG ** * V alues es timated on basis of other materials and performance of s amples in s ewer. **Much les s than C AC /DOL-no mas s los s 17 months in s ewer and pH on s urface >6,4 ***Average of maximum los s at side divided by corres ponding value for P C /S IL. B y applying the LF M as des cribed in equation 4 above to a particular s ewer and as suming an A value of 0.16 as would be appropriate for a s tandard siliceous aggregate concrete the required s acrificial layer can be es tablis hed. T he sacrificial layer thicknes s for another material can be calculated by multiplying this value by the appropriate material factor, MF from T able 25. z ANOT HE R = 72 MF k s wL (5) MF - Material F actor for chos en material and is obtained from T able 25.
T his extens ion to the LF M has been called the Material F actor Model (MF M). T he application of this and how it can be us ed to determine the mos t cos t effective pipe material for a given s ewer is des cribed in s ection 10.5 that follows . B as ed on the 5 year findings from the V irginia S ewer the concept of making a host pipe of one type of concrete to provide the s trength and an additional layer of another concrete to cope with the corrosion was inves tigated. A effective technique for doing this was developed and since 1997has been us ed on many of the major outfall s ewers in S outh Africa. T he mos t commonly us ed combination of materials has been a hos t pipe made of P C /S IL concrete and a s acrificial layer of C AC /DOL. W hen s uch pipes are made an allowance of 3 to 5 mm is made for the interface between the two concretes .
T he rate of H 2S generation in rising mains and s iphons is much greater than in s ewers flowing partly full becaus e the slimes layer extends around the full pipe circumference, none of the gas generated es capes and there is no oxygen enrichment of the s ewage. S evere corrosion can occur in s ewers downs tream of thes e es pecially when s ewage retention times exceed much more than an hour. W hen the sewage dis charges into the gravity s ection of sewer the accumulated H 2S is liberated and can caus e s evere local corrosion. P rocedures for minimis ing retention times and the res ultant corrosion are: Us e the s malles t practical pipe diameter for the full flowing s ection of s ewer Make the s ection as s hort as pos sible Operate pumps frequently, particularly in early years of the s ys tem where low flows could res ult in the s ewage upstream of the full flowing s ection becoming s eptic. S ewage with a high B OD us ually res ults in higher s ulphide content and this could result in the corrosion of the s tructures at the purification works . V arious meas ures that can be taken to reduce this are: If the B OD is very high, greater than 1 000 mg/I, pre-treat the s ewage Lay the feed line to the dosing tank below the hydraulic gradient to exclude oxygen. In s pecial cases the addition of hydrated lime to increas e the s ewage pH, or alternatively ventilating the outfall us ing a forced draught should be considered. C areful hydraulic design and attention to detail has a positive contribution in reducing s ewer corrosion. However they cannot eliminate the problems that could aris e if the corrosion potential is s evere and has not been identified by doing the neces s ary corrosion analysis . T he above considerations s hould be us ed in combination with an application of the LF M and MF M when designing and detailing s ewers ; not as a s ubs titute an analysis .
F rom the ins tallation conditions do a preliminary as s es s ment of the pipe clas s that will be required bas ed on the wors t-cas e s cenario as given in table xy above. If the pipe clas s indicated were 75D or 100D then the outside diameter (OD) of the pipe would be 1.2 times the indicated hos t pipe ID. If the pipe clas s indicated was 50D or les s then the outs ide diameter would be 1.14 times the hos t pipe ID. T he manufacturers brochures s hould be cons ulted to determine the neares t actual external diameter that would give at least the external diameter as indicated by the calculations done following the above procedure. T his s hould be done for each of the s olutions being evaluated as when s evere corros ion is predicted there will be a s ignificant difference between the minimum required hos t pipe ODs and this could mean that the pipes using a different corrosion control meas ures would be made in moulds of different ODs . T his is illus trated in the example that follows . Once the mould ODs for the different s olutions have been es tablis hed the exercis e s hould be repeated for each of these alternatives but in the revers e order namely: F or the required OD determine the pipe s trength and clas s required to handle the ins talled conditions . Add the required s acrificial layer or lining thicknes s to the hos t pipe ID to determine the actual pipe ID. C heck the hydraulics of the s ewer using the actual ID. T he designer is now in a position to get budget prices from the s uppliers s o the alternatives can be compared on an economic bas is. Example: determine the most cost effective pipe with an actual ID of 900mm for a range of Az values, namely 5, 10, 20 and 40. Assume that the required pipe class is 100D. MAT E R IAL Az V ALUE P IP E IDS AC R L HOS T ID P IP E OD HOS T - kg S AC R L - kg T OT AL - kg % HOS T P R IC E MAT E R IAL Az V ALUE P IP E IDS AC R L HOS T ID P IP E OD HOS T - kg S AC R L - kg T OT AL - kg % HOS T P R IC E pc/s il 5 900 30 960 1152 822 226 1046 145 pc/dol 5 900 12 1100 1320 757 89 845 117 10 900 24 910 1116 803 178 981 136 20 900 50 1000 1200 892 385 1277 177 40 900 100 1100 1320 1079 811 1889 262 10 900 60 1020 1224 928 467 1395 193 pc/dol 20 5 10 900 900 900 125 12 24 1150 924 948 1380 1108.8 1137.6 1179 757 803 1038 89 178 2217 845 981 307 117 136 cac/dol 5 900 5 930 1140 738 37 775 123 cac/dol 20 5 900 900 50 5 1000 910 1200 1092 892 738 385 37 1277 775 177 123 10 900 9 918 1102 753 66 819 132 20 900 15 918 1116 771 111 882 153 hdpe 10 900 9 950 1102 753 66 819 132 20 900 15 950 1116 771 111 882 153 40 900 25 950 1140 805 187 992 189 all 900 0 905 905 787 0 0 178
This table clearly illustrates the impact of the corrosion potential on the cost effectiveness of the various materials commonly used as corrosion control measures for sewers in
South Africa. As the corrosion potential increases the solutions that are more costly to produce actually become more cost effective solutions. The following shows this: If there is any corrosion potential at all the PC/SIL solution will be the most costly and the PC/DOL solution where the host pipe and sacrificial layer is made from th asame material is the most cost effective. Where corrosion potential becomes greater (15 < Az <30) the CAC/DOL sacrificial layer and a host pipe of a standard concrete will be the most cost effective. Where corrosion potential becomes severe (Az >30) the HDPE lining cast into the host pipe will be the most cost effective It should be noted that the costs used in this exercise are hypothetical and that do make this comparison on an actual project it would be necessary to obtain actual prices from the pipe suppliers. Although a lining of C AC /S IL would be technically sound it would not be cost effective unles s it was very expens ive to trans port dolomitic aggregate to the manufacturing plant. F rom the above example it can be s een that all s ewer pipes and manholes s hould be manufactured us ing calcareous aggregates even if no corrosion is expected. T he concrete made for thes e s hould contain not more than 25% ins olubles when tes ted in hydrochloric acid. (Details of the tes t method are given in S ANS 676.) In s ome parts of S outh Africa aggregates are available with ins olubility levels of 12% to 18%. If available the lowes t practical level s hould be s pecified. T he s tandard s acrificial layer thicknes s es us ed in S outh Africa are 13 mm for pipes up to 1050 mm in diameter and 19 mm for diameters larger than this . If the corrosion analysis indicates that thes e thicknes s es are inadequate and a more cos tly material cannot be jus tified then a thicker sacrificial layer s hould be s pecified. T o ens ure that the hydraulic requirements will be met the minimum internal diameter and the s acrificial layer thicknes s s hould be s pecified. W hen the s acrificial layer and hos t pipe are made from different concretes an allowance s hould be made for the interface between the two concretes . Under thes e circums tances it would be realis tic to consider the des ign values for the s tandard s acrificial layers as being minimum values of 10 and 15 mm ins tead of nominal values of 13 and 19 mm.
FIGURE 35: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRACK WIDTH AND SACRIFICIAL LAYER Example: If a 900 mm diameter concrete pipe with a standard wall thickness of 93 mm has a sacrificial layer of 20 mm, what is the allowable crack width at proof load? Standard cover to steel is 10 mm. Neutral axis, x = 93/2 = 46.5 mm C = C1 + C2 = 10+ 20 = 30 mm and r = 0.25(113 46.5)/(113 46.5 20) = 0.36 mm T here are two practical factors that s hould be cons idered when s acrificial layers that are thicker than s tandard ones are s pecified, namely: If the s acrificial layer is thicker than one third of the wall thicknes s the reinforcement will be clos e to the centre of the pipe wall and will not be effective in controlling cracks . If the s acrificial layer thicknes s is more than twice the s tandard concrete cover to reinforcement the crack widths that could be accepted if equation (6) were blindly applied could be exces s ive and allow aggres s ive elements to enter the cracks and move the corros ion front clos er to the reinforcement. T he AC P A C oncrete P ipe Handbook (4,p57? ) s tates that problems have not been experienced with pipes that have cracks in them of up to 0.5 mm when the concrete cover to reinforcement is 25 mm. As this cannot be s ubs tantiated by any s cientific s tudy it is recommended that the s erviceability limit for crack widths be limited 0.4 mm even if equation (6) above indicates a larger value. B y applying the correct procedure for predicting corrosion and then choosing the pipe material that cos t effectively meets the requirements the above problems will in general be avoided.
F ormation level
Main backfill
C rown Unit
B linding layer T rench bottom FIGURE 29: TERMONOLOGY FOR PORTAL CULVERTS As portal culverts are rectangular two dimens ions determine their s ize. Hence, the relations hip between the load to be carried and the required s trength cannot be s implified as it can with pipes . Hence, the s trength required is determined by us ing a direct approach. T he procedure adopted is : Determine the s tructural properties of the portal C alculate loads and load combinations C alculate the bending moments and s hear forces generated in the portal by the various load combinations Determine the bending moment and s hear force envelopes that cover all the loading cas es Determine combinations of tes t loads to model the ins talled bending moment and s hear force envelopes . T his procedure can be followed by using ultimate values for both the ins talled and tes t loading conditions or by factoring the ins talled parameters and determining the proof load parameters that match them.
width of excavation, and the positive or negative projection. These theories also allow for the use of reduced partial safety factors. (In positive and negative projecting culverts, the tops of the structures are above and below undisturbed ground level respectively.) The application of sophisticated design theories or the design techniques based on the phenomenological approach to flexible and special types of culvert that required more accurate assessments of soil-structure interaction. This Code covers the first approach only, which is an extension of the AASHO1 and CPA2 formulae. The designer shall use his discretion in deciding on the best applicable method for any particular case and is referred to publications on the subject. In the simplified approach the earth loading has been reduced to four combinations of foundation and installation conditions , namely: C ondition 1: C ulverts in trench on unyielding foundation with no projection. C ondition 2: C ulverts untrenched on yielding foundation. C ondition 3: C ulverts untrenched on unyielding foundation for H>1.7B C ondition 4: C ulverts untrenched on unyielding foundation for H<1.7B W here H - fill height in metres B - if trenched overall trench width, or if untrenched overall culvert width, in metres . C onditions 1 and 2 corres pond to the geos tatic loading condition and 3 and 4 to the pos itive projection ins tallation condition with an rs d p ratio of 1. Approximate methods for determining the effects of traffic loading on rigid conduits are given in C laus e 2.6.6 of T MH7. T his combination of the earth and traffic loading was applied to the s tandard portal culvert dimens ions to determine the product s trengths required. T hese s trengths were compared with thos e of the s tandard S -load culverts and the appropriate clas s es selected. T he relationship between s tandard portal culvert clas s es and maximum fill heights for T MH7 loading conditions applied to the s tandard sizes is given in T able 29 below. T he as s umptions , and claus es from T MH7 P arts 1 and 2 us ed to compile this table are: T he table is applicable to rectangular portal culverts only W hen s izes other than given in this table the manufacturer s hould be contacted. A minimum fill height of 300 mm over the culvert units . W here this cannot be achieved a 100 mm reinforced concrete slab mus t be us ed. S tandard traffic loading (S N A, B and C ) as des cribed in C lause 2.6.1.2 F ill material unit weight 20 kN/m3 [C laus e 2.3.1] C oncrete unit weight 24 kN/m3 [C laus e 2.2.1] Horizontal earth pres s ure 7,8 kN/m2 per metre depth [C lause 2.4.2] Ultimate Limit S tate load factors T able 7. If portal culverts are required where the fill over them is les s than 300 mm or more than the amount s tated in this table the loads mus t be calculated using the procedures in T MH7 and the s trength by following the procedure given at the end of s ection 10.1 above.
T AB LE 29: MAXIMUM F ILLS : S -LOAD P OR T AL C ULV E R T S UNDE R T MH7 LOADING . Culvert span x height in mm
600 600 600 750 750 750 750 900 900 900 900 900 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 2100 2100 2100 2100 2100 2100 2400 2400 2400 2400 2400 2400 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3600 3600 3600 3600 3600 3600 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 300 450 600 300 450 600 750 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 900 1200 450 600 900 1200 1500 600 900 1200 1500 1800 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2400 900 1200 1500 1800 2400 3000 900 1200 1500 1800 2400 3000
175 S
175 S
175 S
175 S
150 S
150 S
100 S
100 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
75 S
T his tes t is conducted in a similar way to the water tes t. However as the intention of this is to find is olated problems the air pres sure inside the s ection being tes ted is only jus t above atmos pheric. T he procedure followed is : S eal the ends of the s ection to be tes ted with bulkheads or plugs ; making s ure that the s afety factor of blow out to tes t pres s ure is at leas t 2. One of the bulkheads is fitted with connections to an air s ource, a pres s ure releas e valve and a pres s ure gauge or monometer. Air is added to the tes t s ection to increase the internal pres s ure to a pres cribed amount above atmos pheric. T his mus t allow s ufficient time for this to s tabilis e, as there may be differences between the air and pipe wall temperatures . Once the air pres s ure within the tes t s ection has s tabilis ed the air s upply is s topped and the time in s econds that it takes for a given pres sure drop is meas ured. T he rate of air los s is then calculated. T he s ewer is then inspected to determine whether there are any joints or damaged s ections that are leaking. T hes e leaks can us ually be identified by the sound of es caping air. If no localis ed leaks are identified and the rate of pres sure drop is unacceptable the expos ed s ewer is s prayed with s oapy water to help find any problem areas . Leaking joints or damaged s ections of pipe mus t be repaired us ing means that are approved by the project engineer. S ection 7 of S AB S 1200-LD pres cribes the pres s ures and procedures that s hould be us ed for the air tes ting of s ewers namely: An initial pres s ure of 3.75kP a(375mm of water) Once the pres s ure s tabilis es , reduce it to 2.5kP a(250mm of water) S witch off the machine and meas ure how long it takes for the pres s ure to drop to 1.25kP a(125mm of water) T he minimum acceptable time for this drop to take place is 2 minutes /100mm diameter W henever pos sible defects s hould be repaired with the pipes in place. Only when pipes have been incorrectly ins talled or there has been damage due to s oil movements s hould the replacement of pipes be cons idered. If this is neces s ary it mus t be done from manhole to manhole s o that the whole ins tallation is redone and the pos sibility of relative s ettlement between s ections of s ewer is eliminated. S hould this s paying of s oapy water on the expos ed pipe s how s ections of pipe were bubbles form this will probably be due the pipes having dried out as a res ult of being expos ed for prolonged period (in exces s of 6 weeks ). W hen thes e pipes are expos ed to the mois t s ewer atmos phere the concrete will take up mois ture and the micros tructure will s eal.
Dens ity tes ts are done on the compacted backfill or bedding material on the site and then compared to the Modified P roctor Density to check that thes e materials have been placed to the required densities. M A T E R I A L D E N S I T Y P E R C E NT AG E MOIS T UR E C ONT E NT FIG 35: MOISTURE CONTENT AND DENSITY RELATIONSHIP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation: Concrete Pipe Handbook, Virginia USA, 1981. 2. C larke N W B . Buried Pipelines: a manual of structural design and installation. London, Maclaren, 1968 3. P ortland C ement As s ociation: Handbook of Concrete Culvert Pipe Hydraulics. S kokie, 1964 4. S ANS 10102-2: Selection of pipes for buried pipelines Part 2: Rigid pipes 5. S ANS 1294: P recas t C oncrete Manhole s ections and slabs 6. S ANS 676: R einforced C oncrete P res s ure P ipes 7. S ANS 677: C oncrete non-pres s ure pipes 8. S ANS 986: P recas t reinforced concrete culverts 9. S ANS 10102: T he s election of pipes for buried pipelines . Part 1: General Provisions 10. S ANS 10102: T he s election of pipes for buried pipelines . Part 2: Rigid Pipes 11. S AB S 1200 DB : E arthworks (P ipe T renches ) 12. S AB S 1200 L: Medium-pres s ure P ipelines 13. S AB S 1200 LB : B edding (P ipes ) 14. S AB S 1200 LE : S tormwater Drainage 15. S AB S 1200 LD: S ewers 16. S AB S 1200 LG : P ipe J acking 17. Hart-Davis , Adam. What the Victorians did for us. Headline B ook P ublis hing, London, 2001, pp.5961. 18.Ibid, p142. 19.C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding T echnology. Corrosion of concrete sewers. C S IR , P retoria. S eries DR 12. 1959. 20.B ealey, Mike, Duffy, J ohn J , P reuit, R us s ell B , S tuckey, R obert E . Concrete pipe handbook. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation, V irginia, US A, 1981, pp. 7-22 734. 21.C ouncil for S cientific and Indus trial R es earch (C S IR ), Division of B uilding T echnology. Report on phase 1 of sewer corrosion research: The Virginia sewer experiment and related research. C S IR , Division of B uilding T echnology, P retoria, 1996, p.40. 22.G oyns , A. Virginia sewer rehabilitation. Progress report no 1. A project being undertaken by the P ipe and Infras tructural P roducts Division of the C MA. P IP E S C C C enturion, 2003, pp.12 14. 23.G oyns , A. Virginia sewer rehabilitation. Progress report no 2. A project being undertaken by the P ipe and Infras tructural P roducts Division of the C MA. P IP E S C C C enturion, 2004. 24.K ienow, K K , P omeroy,R D. C orrosion resis tant des ign of sanitary sewer pipe. ASCE Convention and exposition, C hicago, US A, 1978. 25.McLaren, F rederick R . Design manual: sulfide and corrosion prediction and control. American C oncrete P ipe As s ociation, V irginia, US A, 1984. 26.Ibid, p.4-4. 27.B owker, R obert P G , S mith, J ohn M, W ebs ter, Neil A. Design manual: Odor and corrosion control in sanitary sewerage systems and treatment plants. C entre for E nvironmental R esearch Information, US E nvironmental P rotection Agency, C incinnati, 1985, p.23.
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