A geographic information system (GIS), geographical information system, or geospatial information system is a system that captures, stores, analyzes,

manages and presents data with reference to geographic location data. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis and database technology. GIS may be used in archaeology, geography, cartography, remote sensing, land surveying, public utility management, natural resource management, precision agriculture, photogrammetry, urban planning, emergency management, GIS in Environmental Contamination, landscape architecture, navigation, aerial video and localized search engines. A GIS can be thought of as a system - it digitally creates and "manipulates" spatial areas that may be jurisdictional, purpose or application-oriented for which a specific GIS is developed. Hence, a GIS developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise or purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure (SDI), a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries. Therefore, in a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares and displays geographic information for informing decision making. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (usercreated searches), analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.[1] Geographic information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts, applications and systems.[2]

Applications
GIS technology can be used for: earth surface-based scientific investigations; resource management reference and projections of a geospatial nature, both man-made and natural; asset management and location planning archaeology; environmental impact-assessment; infrastructure assessment and development; urban planning; cartography, for a thematic and/or time-based purpose; criminology;

geospatial intelligence;

The following open source desktop GIS projects are reviewed in Steiniger and Bocher GRASS GIS Originally developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, open SAGA GIS System for Automated Geoscientific Analysis- a hybrid GIS software.

source: a complete GIS SAGA has a unique Application Programming Interface (API) and a fast growing set of geoscientific methods, bundled in exchangeable Module Libraries. Quantum GIS QGIS is an Open Source GIS that runs on Linux, Unix, Mac OS X, MapWindow GIS Free, open source GIS desktop application and programming ILWIS ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) integrates uDig gvSIG Open source GIS written in Java. JUMP GIS / OpenJUMP (Open) Java Unified Mapping Platform (the desktop GIS and Windows. component. image, vector and thematic data.

OpenJUMP, SkyJUMP, deeJUMP and Kosmo emerged from JUMP)

Now at Sky Groups we worked on ArcGIS which is product of ESRI, is among those Companies with High Market Share in this field. Esri Products include ArcView 3.x, ArcGIS, ArcSDE, ArcIMS, ArcWeb services and ArcGIS Server.

ArcGIS is a suite consisting of a group of geographic information system (GIS) software products produced by Esri.
ArcGIS includes the following Windows desktop software: ArcReader, which allows one to view and query maps created with the other ArcGIS ArcGIS Desktop, is licensed under three functionality levels: ArcView, which allows one to view spatial data, create layered maps, and perform basic spatial analysis;

products;

ArcEditor which, in addition to the functionality of ArcView, includes more ArcInfo which includes capabilities for data manipulation, editing, and

advanced tools for manipulation of shapefiles and geodatabases; or analysis. There are also server-based ArcGIS products, as well as ArcGIS products for PDAs. Extensions can be purchased separately to increase the functionality of ArcGIS.

Geodatabase
Esri products, including ArcView 3.x, worked with data in the shapefile format. ArcInfo Workstation handled coverages, which stored topology information about the spatial data. Coverages, which were introduced in 1981 when ArcInfo was first released, have limitations in how they handle types of features. Some features, such as roads with street intersections or overpasses and underpasses, should be handled differently than other types of features. ArcGIS is built around the geodatabase, which uses an object-relational database approach for storing spatial data. A geodatabase is a "container" for holding datasets, tying together the spatial features with attributes. The Geodatabase can also contain topology information, and can model behavior of features, such as road intersections, with rules on how features relate to one another.[12] When working with geodatabase, it is important to understand about feature classes which are a set of features, represented with points, lines, or polygons. With shapefiles, each file can only handle one type of feature. A geodatabase can store multiple feature classes or type of features within one file.[13] Geodatabases in ArcGIS can be stored in three different ways including as a "file geodatabase", "personal geodatabase", and "ArcSDE geodatabase".[14] Introduced at 9.2, the file geodatabase stores information in a folder named with a .gdb extension. The insides look similar to that of a coverage but is not, in fact, a coverage. Similar to the personal geodatabase, the file geodatabase only supports a single editor.

the personal geodatabase, there is virtually no size limit. By default, any single table cannot exceed 1TB, but this can be changed. Personal geodatabases store data in Microsoft Access files, using a BLOB field to store the geometry data. The OGR library is able to handle this file type, to convert it to other file formats. Database administration tasks for personal geodatabases, such as managing users and creating backups, can be done through ArcCatalog. Personal geodatabases,

which are based on Microsoft Access, run only on Microsoft Windows and have a 2 gigabyte size limit.

Enterprise (multi-user) level Geodatabase are handled using ArcSDE, which interfaces with high-end DBMS such as Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, DB2 and Informix to handle database management aspects, while ArcGIS deals with spatial data management.[17] Enterprise level Geodatabase support database replication, versioning and transaction management, and are cross-platform compatible, able to run on Linux, Windows, and Solaris.[16]

Also released at 9.2 is the personal SDE database that operates with SQL Server Express. Personal SDE databases do not support multi-user editing, but do support versioning and disconnected editing. Microsoft limits SQL Server Express databases to 4GB. GIS as one of the most powerful of all information technologies because it focuses on integrating knowledge from multiple sources and creates a crosscutting environment for collaboration. In addition, GIS is attractive to most people who encounter it because it is both intuitive and cognitive. It combines a powerful visualization environment with a strong analytic and modeling framework that is rooted in the science of geography. This combination has resulted in a technology that is science based; trusted; and easily communicated across cultures, social classes, languages, and disciplines. To support this vision, GIS combines three fundamental aspects or views:

1. The geodatabase view. A GIS manages geographic information. One way to think of
a GIS is as a spatial database containing datasets that represent geographic information in terms of a generic GIS data model features, rasters, attributes, topologies, networks, and so forth.

GIS datasets are like map layers; they are geographically referenced so that they overlay onto the earth's surface. In many cases, the features (points, lines, and polygons) share spatial relationships with one another. For example, adjacent features share a common boundary. Many linear features connect at their endpoints. Many point locations fall along linear features (e.g., address locations along roads).

2. The map view. A GIS is a set of intelligent maps and other views that show
features and feature relationships on the earth's surface. Various map views of the underlying geographic information can be constructed and used as windows into the geographic database to support query, analysis, and editing of geographic information. Each GIS has a series of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) map applications that provide rich tools for working with geographic information through these views.

3. The geoprocessing view. A GIS is a set of information transformation tools that

derive new information from existing datasets. These geoprocessing functions take information from existing datasets, apply analytic functions, and write results into new derived datasets. Geoprocessing involves the ability to string together a series of operations so that users can perform spatial analysis and automate data processingall by assembling an ordered sequence of operations.

There are numerous spatial operators that can be applied to GIS data. The ability to derive new information within a GIS analysis process is one of the fundamental capabilities in GIS.

Maps A map is a collection of map elements laid out and organized on a page. Common map elements include the map frame with map layers, a scale bar, north arrow, title, descriptive text, and a symbol legend. The primary map element is the map frame, and it provides the principal display of geographic information. Within the map frame, geographic entities are presented as a series of map layers that cover a given map extentfor example, map layers such as roads, rivers, placenames, buildings, political boundaries, surface elevation, and satellite imagery. Map layers are thematic representations of geographic information such as transportation, water, and elevation. Map layers help convey information through

 Discrete features such as collections of points, lines, and polygons Map symbols, colors, and labels that help describe the objects in the map Aerial photography or satellite imagery that covers the map extent Continuous surfaces such as elevation that can be represented in a number of waysfor example, as a collection of contour lines and elevation points or as shaded relief Digitizing is the process of converting features on a paper map into digital format. To digitize a map, you use a digitizing tablet (also known as a digitizer) connected to your computer to trace over the features that interest you. The x,y coordinates of these features are automatically recorded and stored as spatial data. Digitizing with a digitizing tablet offers another way, besides screen digitizing "freehand", to create and edit spatial data. You can convert features from almost any paper map into digital features. You can use a digitizer in conjunction with the editing tools in ArcMap to create new features or edit existing features on a digital map. You may want to digitize features into a new layer and add the layer to an existing map document, or you may want to create a completely new set of layers for an area for which no digital data is available. You can also use a digitizer to update an existing layer on your digital map. When you are in digitizing mode, you can only digitize features; you can't choose buttons, menu commands, or tools from the ArcMap user interface because the screen pointer is locked to the drawing area. In mouse mode, however, there is no correlation between the position of the screen pointer and the digitizing tablet.

Digitizing features in point mode 1. 2. 3. 4.

Click the Editor menu and click Options. Click the Digitizer tab. Check Enabled to use the puck in digitizing mode. Click OK.

5. Click the tool palette drop-down arrow and click the Sketch tool . 6. With the digitizer puck, digitize the first vertex of the feature (press the puck 7. 8.

button you configured to perform a left-mouse click). Trace the puck over the feature on the paper map, digitizing as many vertices as you need. Finish the feature by pressing the puck button you configured to perform a left double-click.

The feature is created. Performed digitizing of roads of Hyderabad city.

Topology has historically been viewed as a spatial data structure used primarily to ensure that the associated data forms a consistent and clean topological fabric. With advances in object-oriented GIS development, an alternative view of topology has evolved. The geodatabase supports an approach to modeling geography that integrates the behavior of different feature types and supports different types of key relationships. In this context, topology is a collection of rules and relationships that, coupled with a set of editing tools and techniques, enables the geodatabase to more accurately model geometric relationships found in the world. Topology, implemented as feature behavior and rules, allows a more flexible set of geometric relationships to be modeled than topology implemented as a data structure. It also allows topological relationships to exist between more discrete types of features within a feature dataset. In this alternative view, topology may still be employed to ensure that the data forms a clean and consistent topological fabric, but also more broadly, it is used to ensure that the features obey the key geometric rules defined for their role in the database. Topology is used most fundamentally to ensure data quality and allow your geodatabase to more realistically represent geographic features. A geodatabase provides a framework within which features can have behavior such as subtypes, default values, attribute domains, validation rules, and structured relationships to tables or other features. This behavior enables you to more accurately model the world and maintain referential integrity between objects in the geodatabase. a topology, you specify the feature classes that participate in the topology. These feature classes may have point, line, or polygon features in them. In the topology, the geometric relationships are between the parts of the features rather than the features themselves. Polygons in a topology have: Edges that define the boundary of the polygons Nodes where edges intersect Vertices that define the shape of the edges

Similarly, line features are made up of an edge, at least two nodes that define the endpoints of the edge, and vertices that define the shape of the edge. Point features behave as nodes when they are coincident with other features in a topology. When features in the topology have parts that intersect or overlap, the edges and nodes that define these parts are shared. You can use the Topology Edit tool to move nodes and whole edges that are sharedbetween features or to move the vertices that define the shape of shared edges. When you move nodes or vertices, you can choose whether you want the segment between

the vertex and the closest vertex to be stretched or whether you want the whole edge to be proportionately stretched. You can also temporarily add new topology nodes to split edges. This simply splits the edge for the topology; it does not break the feature into two features. This can be useful when you want to move one part of an edge without affecting other parts of the edge or when you want to create a new node to snap to. You can find out which features share a given topology element and control whether or not the geometry should be considered shared with the Show Shared Features tool. If two or more features share an edge or node, you can use the Show Shared Features tool to turn off geometry sharing for one or more of the features. Changes you make to that topology edge or node with the Topology Edit tool will only affect the features for which the geometry is still shared.

Polygon rules

Topology rule Must Be Larger Than Cluster Tolerance

Rule description Requires that a feature does not collapse during a validate process. This rule is mandatory for a topology, and applies to all line and polygon feature classes. In instances where this rule is violated, the original geometry is left unchanged.

Potential fixes Delete

Examples

Any polygon feature, such as the one in red, that would collapse when validating the topology is an error. Must Not Overlap Requires that the interior of polygons in the feature class not overlap. The polygons can share edges or vertices. This rule is used when an area cannot belong to two or more polygons. It is useful for modeling administrative boundaries, such as ZIP Codes or voting districts, and mutually exclusive area classifications, such as land cover or landform type. Subtract, Merge, Create Feature

Must Not Have Gaps

This rule requires that there are no voids within a single polygon or between adjacent polygons. All polygons must form a continuous surface. An error will always exist on the perimeter of the surface. You can either ignore this error or mark it as an exception. Use this rule on data that must completely cover an area. For example, soil polygons cannot include gaps or form voidsthey must cover an entire area.

Create Feature

You can use Create Feature to create a new polygon in the void in the center. You can also use Create Feature or mark the error on the outside boundary as an exception.

Line rules

Topology rule Must Be Larger Than Cluster Tolerance

Rule description Requires that a feature does not collapse during a validate process. This rule is mandatory for a topology, and applies to all line and polygon feature classes. In instances where this rule is violated, the original geometry is left unchanged.

Potential fixes Delete

Examples

Any line feature, such as these lines in red, that would collapse when validating the topology is an error. Must Not Overlap Requires that lines not overlap with lines in the same feature class. This rule is used where line segments should not be duplicated; for example, in a stream feature class. Lines can cross or intersect but cannot share segments. Subtract

Must Not Intersect

Requires that line features from the same feature class not cross or overlap each other. Lines can share endpoints. This rule is used for contour lines that should never cross each other or in cases where the intersection of lines should only occur at endpoints, such as street segments and intersections. Requires that a line feature must touch lines from the same feature class at both endpoints. An endpoint that is not connected to another line is called a dangle. This rule is used when line features must form closed loops, such as when they are defining the boundaries of polygon features. It may also be used in cases where lines typically connect to other lines, as with streets. In this case, exceptions can be used where the rule is occasionally violated, as with cul-de-sac or dead end street segments. Requires that a line connect to at least two other lines at each endpoint. Lines that connect to one other line (or to themselves) are said to have pseudonodes. This rule is used where line features must form closed loops, such as when they define the boundaries of polygons or when line features logically must connect to two other line features at each end, as with segments in a stream network, with exceptions being marked for the originating ends of first-

Split, Subtract

Must Not Have Dangles

Extend, Trim, Snap

Must Not Have Pseudonodes

Merge to Largest, Merge

A map topology is a simple topology that you can impose upon simple features on a map during an edit session. Although you can't create or edit geodatabase topologies with ArcView (only ArcEditor and ArcInfo), you can create and edit map topologies in ArcView. A map topology allows you to simultaneously edit simple features that overlap or touch each other in ArcMap. You can use the Topology Edit tool on the Topology toolbar and the Modify Edge and Reshape Edge edit tasks to edit the features in a map topology. The features can be in one or more feature classes and may have different geometries. Line features and the outlines of polygon features become topological edges when you create a map topology. Point features, the endpoints of lines, and the places where edges intersect become nodes. A map topology can be applied to simple features in a shapefile or to simple feature classes in a geodatabase. The feature classes that participate in the map topology must be in the same folder or geodatabase. A map topology cannot be applied to feature classes that participate in a geometric network. A map topology creates topological relationships between the parts of features that are coincident. You can specify the feature classes that you want to participate in the map topology. You can also choose the distance, or cluster tolerance, that defines how close together edges and vertices must be in order to be considered coincident. When you create a map topology, the cluster tolerance that you specify is used to determine which parts of the features are coincident and which edges and nodes in the topology are shared. The cluster tolerance is typically a small actual ground distance. Setting large cluster tolerances can result in features being collapsed or distorted when vertices with a given feature snap together. There are two steps to creating a map topology:

1. Specify which feature classes on the map will participate in the topology. 2. Specify a cluster tolerance. The cluster tolerance is a distance within which
features will be coincident. After you create a map topology, you can use the Topology Edit tool to edit the edges and nodes shared by the features. Editing an edge or node shared by two or more different features results in each feature being modified. This lets you move a border to update two forest polygons or move a corner vertex and update several parcel polygons and a few lot boundaries at the same time. You do not specify any topology rules for a map topology. All edges or vertices of features in the map topology that fall within the cluster tolerance are considered to be topologically shared. You edit shared edges and vertices in a map topology in the same way and with the same tools as you would edit a geodatabase topology. Since there are no topology rules, there is no need to validate a map topology, and there is no creation of error features. At the geometry level, topologies are about simple relationshipssuch as coincidence, covering, and crossingbetween the geometric primitives that make up features. While all

simple feature class geometries (point, line, polygon) may participate in topologies internally, the types of geometry that are acted on when editing a topology are: Edgesline segments that define lines or polygons. Nodespoints at the end of an edge. Pseudonodesa node connecting only two edges or a logical split defined in the topology cache while editing. Pseudonodes of the latter sort become a vertex after editing. Once you've made edits to a feature that participates in a topology, the next step is to validate the topology. Validating the topology means checking the features to identify any violations of the rules that have been defined for the topology. You can validate the whole topology, the visible extent of your map, or a selected area. You can also validate the whole topology in ArcCatalog.

Summarizing topology errors Once you've made edits to a feature that participates in a topology and validated your edits, you may see one or more topology errors. You can manage topology errors with the Error Inspector. The Error Inspector lets you view topology errors in a table that tells you the rule violated, the feature class or classes involved in the error, the geometry of the error, the feature ID of the features involved in the error, and whether or not the error has been marked as an exception (see Topology errors and exceptions). You can sort the errors by any of the fields in the table so you can work with all the errors of a given type. You can also limit the errors shown in the table to errors of a given type, errors that occur in the currently visible map extent, or errors that have been marked as exceptions. In addition to letting you view and sort errors, the Error Inspector lets you select errors, pan or zoom to selected errors, and apply topology fixes of various types to errors. The following keyboard shortcuts are available in the Error Inspector: Use the Up and Down arrows to move up and down through the rows, Z or Spacebar to zoom to the selected error, P to pan to the selected error, F to select the parent features causing the error, D to see a description of the topology rule, X to mark the error as an exception, and E to mark the exception as an error. How to validate topology Validating the whole topology

1. In ArcMap, click the Validate Entire Topology button

on the Topology toolbar.

You will be prompted to specify whether or not you wish to validate the whole topology.

2. Click Yes. Validating topology in the visible extent of the map

1. In ArcMap, click the Validate Topology in Current Extent button

Topology toolbar.

on the

The visible extent is validated. Areas that are not currently visible on the map are not validated. Validating topology in a selected area

1. In ArcMap, click the Validate Topology in Specified Area button 2.

Topology toolbar. Drag a box around the area you want to validate.

on the

The features that fall within the bounding box will be validated. Finding all topology errors

1. 2. 3. 4.

In ArcMap, open the Error Inspector (see 'Opening the Error Inspector' above). On the Error Inspector, check Errors. Click the Show drop-down arrow, and click Errors from all rules. Click Search Now.

Finding only the errors in the visible extent

1. In ArcMap, open the Error Inspector (see 'Opening the Error Inspector' above). 2. On the Error Inspector, check Visible Extent only. 3. Click Search Now.
Finding errors for a particular topology rule

1. In ArcMap, open the Error Inspector (see 'Opening the Error Inspector' above).

2. On the Error Inspector, click the Show drop-down arrow, and click the rule for which you want to search for violations. 3. Click Search Now.

Finding exceptions

1. 2. 3. 4.

In ArcMap, open the Error Inspector (see 'Opening the Error Inspector' above). On the Error Inspector, check Exceptions. Uncheck Errors. Click Search Now.

Changing the symbology of topology features can make recognition easier, particularly when map elements have the same color or symbology as the topology features. The symbology for several types of topological features can be changed. A topology appears in the ArcMap table of contents as a layer with area, line, and point errors.

Changing the symbology for selected error features You can change the way selected error features are drawn on the map. Error features are drawn with point, line, and area symbols of a given color by default. When you select errors, for example, using the Fix Topology Error tool, the selected errors change color so you can more easily identify the errors you are fixing. You can change the symbology of selected topology errors to make them stand out better against a given map background. Changing the symbology for topology elements You can change the way topology elements are drawn on the map. Topology nodes and edges are drawn with point and line symbols of a given color by default, and deselected topology nodes are not drawn by default. You can change the symbol for selected topology nodes and edges and for deselected nodes. Turning on the symbol for unselected nodes can make it easier to identify nodes to which you want to snap when you are editing topology elements.

Changing the symbology for topology layers You can change the way error features, exceptions, and dirty areas are drawn on the map. Point, line, and polygon errors are drawn with symbols of a single color by default. Exceptions and dirty areas are not drawn by default. Changing the symbology of error features and exceptions that relate to different topology rules can make it easier to

understand what problems there are with your data. Drawing dirty areas can make it easier to see the areas that have been affected by edits and that are yet to be validated. After performing the digitization of Hyderabad we converted into its topological form so that we aware with the errors and once it was known o us then performed respective correction depending the error.

Geo referencing of cadastral data

A cadastre commonly includes details of the ownership, the tenure, the precise location (some include GPScoordinates), the dimensions (and area), the cultivations if rural, and the value of individual parcels of land. Cadastres are used by many nations around the world some in conjunction with other records, such as a title register. Cadastral map A cadastral map is a map that shows the boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels, certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to prior maps. Scott, in Seeing Like a State, argues that all maps, but particularly cadastral maps, are designed to make local situations tangible to an outsider, and in doing so, enable states to collect data on their subjects. He sees the origins of this in Early Modern Europe, where taxationbecame more complex. Cadastral maps, he argues, are always a great simplification, but they in themselves help change reality. Raster data is commonly obtained by scanning maps or collecting aerial photographs and satellite images. Scanned map datasets don't normally contain spatial reference information (either embedded in the file or as a separate file). With aerial photography and satellite imagery, sometimes the locational information delivered with them is inadequate and the data does not align properly with other data you may have. Thus, to use some raster datasets in conjunction with your other spatial data, you may need to align, or georeference, to a map coordinate system. A map coordinate system is defined using a map projection (a method by which the curved surface of the earth is portrayed on a flat surface). A shapefile is a digital vector storage format for storing geometric location and associated attribute information. This format lacks the capacity to store topological information. The shapefile format was introduced with ArcView GIS version 2 in the beginning of the 1990s.

It is now possible to read and write shapefiles using a variety of free and non-free programs. Shapefiles are simple because they store primitive geometrical data types of points, lines, and polygons. These primitives are of limited use without any attributes to specify what they represent. Therefore, a table of records will store properties/attributes for each primitive shape in the shapefile. Shapes (points/lines/polygons) together with data attributes can create infinitely many representations about geographical data. Representation provides the ability for powerful and accurate computations. While the term "shapefile" is quite common, a "shapefile" is actually a set of several files. Three individual files are mandatory to store the core data that comprises a shapefile: ".shp", ".shx", ".dbf", and other extensions on a common prefix name (e.g., "lakes.*"). The actual shapefile relates specifically to files with the ".shp" extension, but alone is incomplete for distribution, as the other supporting files are required. There are a further eight optional files which store primarily index data to improve performance. Each individual file should conform to the MS DOS 8.3 filename convention (8 character filename prefix, period, 3 character filename suffix such as shapefil.shp) in order to be compatible with past applications that handle shapefiles, though many recent software applications accept files with longer names. For this same reason, all files should be located in the same folder. Mandatory files : .shp shape format; the feature geometry itself .shx shape index format; a positional index of the feature geometry to allow .dbf attribute format; columnar attributes for each shape, in dBase IV format

seeking forwards and backwards quickly

Optional files : .prj projection format; the coordinate system and projection information, a plain .sbn and .sbx a spatial index of the features .fbn and .fbx a spatial index of the features for shapefiles that are read-only .ain and .aih an attribute index of the active fields in a table or a theme's

text file describing the projection using well-known text format

attribute table

.ixs a geocoding index for read-write shapefiles .mxs a geocoding index for read-write shapefiles (ODB format) .atx an attribute index for the .dbf file in the form .shp.xml geospatial metadata in XML format, such as ISO 19115 or other schemas .cpg used to specify the code page (only for .dbf) for identifying the character

of shapefile.columnname.atx (ArcGIS 8 and later)

encoding to be used In each of the .shp, .shx, and .dbf files, the shapes in each file correspond to each other in sequence. That is, the first record in the.shp file corresponds to the first record in the .shx and .dbf files, and so on. The .shp and .shx files have various fields with differentendianness, so as an implementor of the file formats you must be very careful to respect the endianness of each field and treat it properly. Shapefiles deal with coordinates in terms of X and Y, although they are often storing longitude and latitude, respectively. While working with the X and Y terms, be sure to respect the order of the terms (longitude is stored in X, latitude in Y). [edit]Shapefile

shape format (.shp)

The main file (.shp) contains the primary geographic reference data in the shapefile. The file consists of a single fixed length header followed by one or more variable length records. Each of the variable length records includes a record header component and a record contents component. A detailed description of the file format is given in the Esri

Shapefile Technical Description.[1] This format should not be confused with

the AutoCAD shape font source format, which shares the .shp extension. When you georeference your raster dataset, you define its location using map coordinates and assign a coordinate system. Georeferencing raster data allows it to be viewed, queried, and analyzed with other geographic data. The general steps for georeferencing a raster dataset are:

1. Add the raster dataset that you want to align with your projected data in ArcMap.
2. Add control points that link known raster dataset positions to known positions in map coordinates. 3. Save the georeferencing information when youre satisfied with the alignment (also referred to as registration).

4. Optionally, permanently transform the raster dataset. Aligning the raster with control points
Generally, you will georeference your raster dataset using existing spatial data (target data), such as avector feature class, that resides in the desired map coordinate system. The process involves identifying a series of ground control pointsknown x,y coordinates that link locations on the raster dataset with locations in the spatially referenced data (target data). Control points are locations that can be accurately identified on the raster dataset and in real-world coordinates. There are many different types of features that can be used as identifiable locations, such as road or stream intersections, the mouth of a stream, rock outcrops, the end of a jetty of land, the corner of an established field, street corners, or the intersection of two hedgerows. The control points are used to build a polynomial transformation that will convert the raster dataset from its existing location to the spatially correct location. The connection between one control point on the raster dataset (the from point) and the corresponding control point on the aligned target data (the to point) is a link. The example below shows a from control point (yellow cross) placed on the vector target data at a street crossing and the associated control point (green cross) placed on the raster dataset. The associated link is represented by the blue line joining the control points.

The number of links you need to create depends on the complexity of the transformation you plan to use to transform the raster dataset to map coordinates. However, adding more

links will not necessarily yield a better registration. If possible, you should spread out the links over the entire raster dataset rather than concentrating them in one area. Typically, having at least one link near each corner of the raster dataset and a few throughout the interior produces the best results. Generally, the greater the overlap between the raster dataset and target data, the better the alignment results because youll have more widely spaced points with which to georeference the raster dataset. For example, if your target data only occupies onequarter of the area of your raster dataset, the points you could use to align the raster dataset would be confined to that area of overlap. Thus, the areas outside the overlap area are not likely to be properly aligned. Keep in mind that your georeferenced data is only as accurate as the data to which it was aligned. To minimize errors, you should georeference to data that is at the highest resolution and largest scale for your needs.

Transforming the raster

When you've created enough links, you can transformor warpthe raster dataset to permanently match the map coordinates of the target data. You have the choice of using a polynomial, spline, or adjust transformation to determine the correct map coordinate location for each cell in the raster. The polynomial transformation uses a polynomial that is built upon control points and a least square fitting (LSF) algorithm. It is optimized for global accuracy but does not guarantee local accuracy. The polynomial transformation yields two formulas: one for computing the output x-coordinate for an input (x,y) location and one for computing the y-coordinate for an input (x,y) location. The goal of the least-square fit is to derive a general formula that can be applied to all points, usually at the expense of slight movement of the to positions of the control points. The number of the noncorrelated control points required for this method must be 3 for a first order, 6 for a second order, and 10 for a third order. The first-order polynomial transformation is commonly used to georeference an image. Below is the equation to transform a raster dataset using the affine (1st order)

polynomial transformation. You can see how six parameters define how a raster's rows and columns transform onto map coordinates.

Use a first order, or affine transformation, to shift, scale, and rotate a raster dataset. This generally results in straight lines on the raster dataset mapped as straight lines in the warped raster dataset. Thus, squares and rectangles on the raster dataset are commonly changed into parallelograms of arbitrary scaling and angle orientation. With a minimum of three links, the mathematical equation used with a first-order transformation can exactly map each raster point to the target location. Any more than three links introduces errors, or residuals, that are distributed throughout all the links. However, you should add more than three links because if one link is positionally wrong, it has a much greater impact on the transformation. Thus, even though the mathematical transformation error may increase as you create more links, the overall accuracy of the transformation will increase as well.

The higher the transformation order, the more complex the distortion that can be corrected. However, transformations higher than third order are rarely needed. Higherorder transformations require more links and, thus, will involve progressively more processing time. In general, if your raster dataset needs to be stretched, scaled, and rotated, use a first-order transformation. If, however, the raster dataset must be bent or curved, use a second- or third-order transformation.

The spline transformation is a true rubber sheeting method and optimizes for local accuracy but not global accuracy. It is based on a spline functiona piecewise polynomial that maintains continuity and smoothness between adjacent polynomials. Spline transforms the source control points exactly to target control points; the pixels that are away from the control points are not guaranteed to be accurate. This transformation is useful when the control points are very important and it is required that they be registered precisely. Adding more control points can increase overall accuracy of the spline transformation. Spline requires a minimum of ten control points. The adjust transformation optimizes for both global LSF and local accuracy. It is built upon an algorithm that combines a polynomial transformation and TIN interpolation techniques. The adjust transformation performs a polynomial transformation using two sets of control points, then adjusts the control points locally to better match the target control points using a TIN interpolation technique. Adjust requires a minimum of three control points.

Interpreting the root mean square error

When the general formula is derived and applied to the control point, a measure of the errorthe residual erroris returned. The error is the difference between where the from point ended up as opposed to the actual location that was specifiedthe to point position. The total error is computed by taking the root mean square (RMS) sum of all the residuals to compute the RMS error. This value describes how consistent the transformation is between the different control points (links). When the error is particularly large, you may want to remove and add control points to adjust the error. Although the RMS error is a good assessment of the accuracy of the transformation, dont confuse a low RMS error with an accurate registration. For example, the transformation may still contain significant errors due to a poorly entered control point. The more control points of equal quality used, the more accurately the polynomial can convert the input data to output coordinates. Typically, the adjust and spline transformations give an RMS of near zero or zero; however, this does not mean that the image will be perfectly georeferenced.

Resampling the raster dataset

When you rectify or transform a raster dataset, project it, resample it, convert the raster dataset from one projection to another, or change the cell size, you are performing a geometric transformation. Geometric transformation is the process of changing the geometry of a raster dataset from one coordinate space to another. Types of geometric transformations include rubber sheeting (usually used for georeferencing), projection (using the projection information to transform the data from one projection to another), translation (shifting all the coordinates equally), rotation (rotating all the coordinates by some angle), and changing the cell size of the dataset. After the geometric transformation is applied to the input raster, the cell centers of the input raster rarely line up with the cell centers on the output raster; however, values need to be assigned to the centers. Although you might think each cell in a raster dataset is transformed to its new map coordinate location, the process actually works in reverse. During georeferencing, a matrix of empty cells is computed using the map coordinates. Then, each empty cell is given a value

based on the resampling process. The three most common resampling techniques are nearest neighbor assignment, bilinear interpolation, and cubic convolution. These techniques assign a value to each empty cell by examining the cells in the ungeoreferenced raster dataset. Nearest neighbor assignment is the fastest resampling technique and is appropriate for categorical or thematic data, since it does not alter the value of the input cells. Once the location of the cells center on the output raster dataset is located on the input raster, nearest neighbor assignment determines the location of the closest cell center on the input raster and assigns the value of that cell to the cell on the output raster. The nearest neighbor assignment does not change any of the values of cells from the input raster dataset. The value 2 in the input raster will always be the value 2 in the output raster; it will never be 2.2 or 3. Since the output cell values remain the same, nearest neighbor assignment should be used for nominal or ordinal data where each value represents a class, member, or classificationthis may be categorical data such as a land-use, soil, or forest type. Bilinear interpolation uses the value of the four nearest input cell centers to determine the value of the output raster. The new value for the output cell is a weighted average of these four values, adjusted to account for their distance from the center of the output cell in the input raster. This interpolation method results in a smoother-looking surface than can be obtained using nearest neighbor. Since the values for the output cells are calculated according to the relative position and the value of the input cells, bilinear interpolation is preferred for data where the location from a known point or phenomenon determines the value assigned to the cellthat is, continuous surfaces. Elevation, slope, intensity of noise from an airport, and salinity of the groundwater near an estuary are all phenomena represented as continuous surfaces and are most appropriately resampled using bilinear interpolation. Cubic convolution is similar to bilinear interpolation, except the weighted average is

calculated from the 16 nearest input cell centers and their values. Cubic convolution will have a tendency to sharpen the data more than bilinear interpolation since more cells are involved in the calculation of the output value. Therefore, this resampling method is often used when resampling imagery, such as aerial photography and satellite imagery. Bilinear interpolation or cubic convolution should not be used on categorical data since the categories will not be maintained in the output raster dataset. However, all three techniques can be applied to continuous data, with nearest neighbor producing a blocky output, bilinear interpolation producing smoother results, and cubic convolution producing the sharpest results. When undertaking a large resampling project, it is recommended that you create a prototype, utilizing more than one of the resampling techniques to make an accurate assessment of the most appropriate method to use for your data.

Should you rectify your raster?

You can permanently transform your raster dataset after georeferencing it by using the Rectify command on the Georeferencing toolbar or by using the Warp tool. You can also store the transformation information separately in a new file using the Update Georeferencing command on the Georeferencing toolbar. Rectifying or warping will create a new raster dataset that is georeferenced using the map coordinates and the spatial reference. You can save this as a GRID, IMG, TIFF, BMP, GIF, JPEG, JPEG 2000, or PNG format. ArcGIS doesnt require you to permanently transform your raster dataset to display it with other spatial data; however, you should choose to if you plan to perform analysis with it or want to use it with another software package that doesnt recognize the external georeferencing information created in the world file. Updating the georeferencing will store the transformation information in external filesit will not create a new raster dataset, which is what happens when you permanently transform your raster dataset. For an input raster dataset that is file based, such as a TIFF, the transformation will be stored in an external XML file with an .xfm extension and also in an AUX file. ArcGIS will manage both the XFM and AUX file along with the raster dataset. For an input raster dataset in a geodatabase, Update Georeferencing will store the geodata transformation internally as a persisted stream with the raster dataset. If an affine

transformation (first-order polynomial) is chosen, the Update Georeferencing command will also create a world file when creating the XFM file. Learn more about world files Learn more about AUX files

How to georeference a raster dataset

Georeferencing a raster dataset
1. Start ArcMap. 2. Add the layers residing in map coordinates and the raster dataset you want to georeference. 3. In the table of contents, right-click a target layer (the referenced dataset) and click Zoom to Layer. 4. From the Georeferencing toolbar, click the Layer drop-down arrow and click the raster layer you want to georeference. View the Georeferencing toolbar 5. Click Georeferencing and click Fit To Display. This will display the raster dataset in the same area as the target layers. You can also use the Shift and Rotate tools to move the raster dataset as needed. To see all the datasets, you may have to adjust their order in the table of contents.

6. Click the Add Control Points tool

to add control points.

7. To add a link, click the mouse pointer on a known location on the raster dataset, then on a known location on the data in map coordinates (the referenced data). You may find it useful to add your links in a Magnification window. When working with two raster datasets, you may want to open the Effects toolbar and adjust the transparency or turn layers on and off in the table of contents to view each image as you add your links. 8. Add enough links for the type of transformation.

You need a minimum of three links for a spline or 1st-order polynomial (affine), six links for a 2nd-order polynomial, and ten links for an affine or 3rd-order polynomial.

9. Click View Link Table

to evaluate the transformation.

You can examine the residual error for each link and the RMS error. If youre satisfied with the registration, you can stop entering links. 10. Click Georeferencing and click Update Georeferencing to save the

transformation information with the raster dataset. This creates a new file with the same name as the raster dataset but with an .aux.xml file extension. It also creates a world file for some of the file formats, including .tif and .img files. Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation emitted from aircraft or satellites).[1][2] There are two main types of remote sensing: passive remote sensing and active remote sensing.[3] Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR is an example of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, height, speed and direction of an object. Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoringdeforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during the cold war made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas. Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring in the process that areas or objects are not disturbed. Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides researchers with enough information to monitor trends such as El Nio and other

natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, agricultural fields such as land usage and conservation, and national security and overhead, ground-based and stand-off collection on border areas.[4] By satellite, aircraft, spacecraft, buoy, ship, and helicopter images, data is created to analyze and compare things like vegetation rates, erosion, pollution, forestry, weather, and land use. These things can be mapped, imaged, tracked and observed. The process of remote sensing is also helpful for city planning, archaeological investigations, military observation and geomorphological surveying Data acquisition techniques The basis for multispectral collection and analysis is that of examined areas or objects that reflect or emit radiation that stand out from surrounding areas. Applications of remote sensing data Conventional radar is mostly associated with aerial traffic control, early warning,

and certain large scale meteorological data. Doppler radar is used by local law enforcements monitoring of speed limits and in enhanced meteorological collection such as wind speed and direction within weather systems. Other types of active collection includes plasmas in the ionosphere. Interferometric synthetic aperture radar is used to produce precise digital elevation models of large scale terrain (See RADARSAT, TerraSAR-X, Magellan). Laser and radar altimeters on satellites have provided a wide range of data. By measuring the bulges of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a mile or so. By measuring the height and wave-length of ocean waves, the altimeters measure wind speeds and direction, and surface ocean currents and directions. Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is well known in examples of weapon ranging, laser illuminated homing of projectiles. LIDAR is used to detect and measure the concentration of various chemicals in the atmosphere, while airborne LIDAR can be used to measure heights of objects and features on the ground more accurately than with radar technology. Vegetation remote sensing is a principal application of LIDAR. Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation in a wide range of frequencies. The most common are visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray and rarely, ultraviolet.

They may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere. Stereographic pairs of aerial photographs have often been used to make topographic maps by imagery and terrain analysts in trafficability and highway departments for potential routes. Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Landsat have been in use since the 70s. These thematic mappers take images in multiple wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation (multi-spectral) and are usually found on Earth observation satellites, including (for example) theLandsat program or the IKONOS satellite. Maps of land cover and land use from thematic mapping can be used to prospect for minerals, detect or monitor land usage, deforestation, and examine the health of indigenous plants and crops, including entire farming regions or forests. Hyperspectral imaging produces an image where each pixel has full spectral information with imaging narrow spectral bands over a contiguous spectral range. Hyperspectral imagers are used in various applications including mineralogy, biology, defence, and environmental measurements.

Within the scope of the combat against desertification, remote sensing allows to

follow-up and monitor risk areas in the long term, to determine desertification factors, to support decision-makers in defining relevant measures of environmental management, and to assess their impacts.[5]
Geodetic Overhead geodetic collection was first used in aerial submarine detection and

gravitational data used in military maps. This data revealed minute perturbations in the Earths gravitational field (geodesy) that may be used to determine changes in the mass distribution of the Earth, which in turn may be used for geological studies. Acoustic and near-acoustic Sonar: passive sonar, listening for the sound made by another object (a vessel, a

whale etc); active sonar, emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes, used for detecting, ranging and measurements of underwater objects and terrain. Seismograms taken at different locations can locate and measure earthquakes (after they occur) by comparing the relative intensity and precise timing.

To coordinate a series of large-scale observations, most sensing systems depend on the following: platform location, what time it is, and the rotation and orientation of the sensor. High-end instruments now often use positional information from satellite navigation systems. The rotation and orientation is often provided within a degree or two with electronic compasses. Compasses can measure not just azimuth (i. e. degrees to magnetic north), but also altitude (degrees above the horizon), since the magnetic field curves into the Earth at different angles at different latitudes. More exact orientations require gyroscopic-aided orientation, periodically realigned by different methods including navigation from stars or known benchmarks.