COMMUNICATIONS Communications is defined as a process of sending/transmitting and receiving information/messages from one point called the source to another

point known as destination via a medium. Major Components of a Communication System Sender/transmitter Medium Receiver/destination Messages/information Noise

Building Block Diagram of a Practical Communication System

components of an IDEAL communication Source makes up a PRACTICAL communication A source, in a communication system, is where the desired information or messages for transmission originates. Commonly known sources are human voice, data storage or industrial sounds. The Transmitter A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications. WIRELESS Radio communications, broadcast, cellular/mobile communications, satellite, microwave communications, navigational communications Input Transducer An input transducer converts/translates the energy of the source (commonly acoustic energy) into an electrical energy signal that can be recognized and processed by the succeeding electronic components. Many types of input transducers can be found in a sound reinforcement system, with microphones being the most commonly used input device. They can be classified according to their method of transduction, pickup (or polar) pattern or their functional application. Modulator Equipment used for superimposing an information signal onto an RF carrier by varying some aspect of the carrier. There are two fundamental types of modulation: amplitude modulation and phase modulation. Frequency modulation is a subset of phase modulation. Commonly Used Types of Modulation Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. Phase Modulation (PM) is a form of modulation that represents information as variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave. Frequency Modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency (contrast this with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant).

Nature & Characteristics of a Communication System Defined and limited by its major components. Receiver/destination must interpret & understand the information/messages. Interference. Forms of Communication WIRED/CABLE Telephony, fiber optics, LAN, CATV

Electromagnetic Spectrum (Radio Frequency Band) Band Name Extremely Low f Super Low f Ultra Low f Very Low f Low f Medium f High f Frequency Allocation 3 30 Hz 30 300 Hz 300 3000 Hz 3 30 kHz 30 300 3 300 kHz 3000 kHz 30 MHz Alt. Name ELF 1 ELF 2 Voice f (VF) Long Wave (LW) Medium Wave (MW) Short Wave (SW) Uses AC Power Distribution Human voice Submarine communications Maritime & aeronautical navigation AM broadcast: FCC (535 kHz 1605 kHz) KBP (526.5 kHz 1705 kHz) International broadcast FM broadcast (88 108 MHz); TV broadcast Channels 2-13 (54 216 MHz) TV broadcast Channels 14 83 (470 890 MHz); Cellular Telephony Radar, satellite Radio astronomy, remote sensing

ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF

Very High f

VHF

30

300 MHz

Ultra High f Super High f Extremely High f

UHF SHF EHF

300 3 30

3000 MHz Microwaves 30 GHz 300 GHz

Amplifier An amplifier is any device that changes, usually increases, the amplitude of a signal. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifierusually expressed as a function of the input frequencyis called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain.

heard at the same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a twolane road with one lane for each direction. Tx Full / Full-duplex (F/FDX) Rx

The Medium A medium is a path that allows the flow of information/messages from the source or transmitter to the receiver or destination. It could either be a wired or wireless medium. Forms of Medium/Channel Wired Transmission Lines Uses physical/concrete conductors. Allows the flow of high frequency (HF) current. Fiber Optic Cable Allows travel of information/messages through a non-conductive cable. Uses the light wave technology. A full full-duplex transmission is a complex variation of full duplex wherein the host transmits and receives information simultaneously from two or more devices or facilities. Tx Rx Rx Modes of Propagation Ground Wave (Surface Wave) Propagation Ground waves refer to the propagation of radio waves close to or at the surface of the Earth. These surface waves are also known loosely as Norton surface waves, Zenneck waves, Sommerfeld waves, or gliding waves. It is being employed to ELFto MF- type of communication and is propagated on a vertically polarized condition. Sky Wave (Ionospheric Wave) Propagation Sky wave is the propagation of electromagnetic waves bent (refracted) back to the Earth's surface by the ionosphere. It is employed to HF signals. Space Wave (Tropospheric Wave) Propagation Simplex (SX) Simplex communication refers to communication that occurs in one direction only. Tx Half-duplex (HDX) A half-duplex system provides for communication in both directions, but only one direction at a time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying. Tx Full-duplex (FDX) A full-duplex, or sometimes double-duplex system, allows communication in both directions, and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since they allow both callers to speak and be Rx Rx The Receiver A receiver is the receiving end of a communication channel. It receives decoded messages/information from the sender, who first encoded them. Sometimes the receiver is modelled so as to include the decoder. Real-world receivers like radio receivers or telephones cannot be expected to receive as much information because of noise during transmission. Types of Receiver Tuned-radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver TRF Receiver is a radio receiver that is usually composed of several tuned radio frequency amplifiers followed by circuits to detect and amplify the audio signal. A 3 stage TRF receiver includes a RF stage, a detector stage and an audio stage. Generally, 2 or 3 RF amplifiers are required to filter and amplify the received signal to a level sufficient to drive the detector stage. The detector converts RF signals directly to information, and the audio stage amplifies the information signal to a Space wave propagation is used for point-to-point communications and is employed in VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF signals.

Wireless Antenna Used as a transducer. Converts HF currents into EMW, and vice versa. Uses the Principle of Reciprocity.

Modes of Transmission

usable level. Prevalent in the early 20th century, it can be difficult to operate because each stage must be individually tuned to the station's frequency. Superheterodyne Receiver A superheterodyne receiver uses frequency mixing or heterodyning to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF), which can be more conveniently processed than the original radio carrier frequency. Virtually all modern radio and television receivers use the superheterodyne principle. The Noise

Noise Power in terms of Decibels ( ( ( ) ) )

Noise Voltage Noise us any unwanted form of energy that tries to interfere normal and properly transmitted reception and reproduction of the unwanted signals or energy. Categories of Noise Uncorrelated/External Noise Atmospheric Noise A static noise present in the atmosphere normally caused by lightning. Extra-terrestrial Noise (Cosmic Noise) A form of noise coming from the frequency radiated by stars and other heavenly bodies outside the Solar System. Man-made Noise (Industrial Noise) A form of unwanted signal emitted by generators and motors used in manufacturing and industrial developments. Correlated/Internal Noise Thermal Agitation Noise (White-Johnson Noise) Shot Noise Transit-time Noise Effects of Environment to Signals Attenuation Reflection Internal Noise Calculation Thermal Agitation Noise (TAN) Correlated Noise Harmonic Distortion (Amplitude Distortion) Harmonic Distortion is a generation of unwanted frequencies known as harmonics (multiples) of some of the baseband components, which are added to the original signal. Total Harmonic Distortion Ratio (%ThD) and Individual Harmonic Distortion Ratio (%nhD) where EN is the noise r.m.s-voltage R is the resistance (ohm)

Noise Due To Several Sources in Series

Shot Noise (SN) Shot Noise Current ( ) where is the shot noise current is the charge of an electron is current in a diode is the bandwidth

where

and

PN is the Noise Power in watts T is the absolute temperature B is the bandwidth k is Boltzmans Constant (

where )

VHR is the quadratic sum of all the voltages of each individual harmonics (R.M.S. value)

Noise Figure in terms Equivalent Noise Resistance Vn is the R.M.S. voltage of a specific harmonic n is the order of a specific harmonic VFL is the R.M.S. voltage of the original signal or fundamental Frequency where Calculation of Individual Harmonic Frequency (hfn) REQ is the equivalent noise resistance RA is antenna resistance

Noise Figure in terms of Equivalent Noise Temperature where fFL is the fundamental frequency Intermodulation Noise (Cross-product Noise xf) Intermodulation noise is an additional frequency component which is a sum and difference if two signals oscillated. where TEQ is the equivalent noise temperature T is the environmental temperature

Total Noise Figure (Friis Formula) where f1 and f2 fundamental frequencies and m and n are positive integers by which f1 > f2 Impulse Noise Impulse noise is an occurrence of sudden burst of unwanted signal or frequency. Interference Interference occurs in the medium part of a communication system. It is present if more than one signal uses the same transmission medium and signals interact with each other. AM Transmission

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) Power Ratio ( Voltage Ratio ( Noise Figure and Noise Ratio Noise Ratio ( ( ( ( ) ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ) Primary Service Area Low level modulation is implemented. An area in which broadcast signal is not subject to object interference or fading. )

Secondary Service Area Either high or low level modulation is implemented. An area in which broadcast signal is not subject to object interference but is vulnerable to intermittent variations in strength.

Noise Figure

Intermittent Service Area High level modulation is implemented. An area beyond the PSA that is subjected to most of the interferences and fading.

Single Sideband Transmission Types of Sideband Transmission 1. Standard SSB Standard SSB is a scheme where the carrier and one of the sidebands are completely eliminated at the transmitter, thus, only one sideband is transmitted. Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC) This is another system of SSB, where one sideband and carrier are suppressed. The carrier signal is reduced or suppressed to desired level. Twin Sideband/Independent Sideband (ISB) This system involves the transmission of two independent sidebands, containing different intelligence. Vestigial Sideband This is a commonly used SSB configuration for TV video transmission, where vestige of the sideband, the carrier and one full sideband are transmitted. Amplitude Compandored SSB (ACSSB) This is where the amplitude of the signal is compressed at the transmitter and expanded at the receiver.

Single Sideband Generation The Balanced Modulator This is a system of adding intelligence to a carrier whereby only the sidebands are produced. Conventional Push-Pull Amplifier

2.

3.

4.

5.

Modified Push-Pull Amplifier

Forms of Representation FORM A3E R3E H3E J3E B8E C3F ABBREVIATION DSBFC SSBRC SSBFC SSBSC ISB VSB NAME Double Sideband Full Carrier Single Sideband Reduced Carrier Single Sideband Full Carrier Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier Twin Sideband Vestigial Sideband

Advantages of SSB More effective utilization of available frequency spectrum. Less subjected to fading or losing of intensity. Higher percentage of power is in the radiated intelligence. Noise advantage over AM due to the bandwidth reduction.

Simplified Balanced Modulator

Methods of SSB Transmission Filter Method

Radio Receiver Receiver A receiver is used to receive modulated radio waves and convert them to original intelligence. Functions of a Receiver Selection This is the ability of the receiver to select a particular frequency of a station from all other station frequencies appearing at the antenna of the receiver. Reception Reception occurs when transmitted EMW passes though the receiver antenna and induces a voltage in the antenna. Detection This is the action of separating the low (audio) frequency intelligence from the high (radio) frequency carrier. Reproduction Reproduction is the action of converting the electrical signal to sound waves, which can then be interpreted by the organ of hearing as speech.

Phase Shift Method

Types of Receivers Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

Superheterodyne Receiver

Receiver Parameters Selectivity

Some Popular IF SYSTEM AM Broadcast FM Broadcast (automobiles) FM Broadcast FM Two-way Radios Picture IF TV Signals Sound IF Radar Rx/Tx Satellite Receiver Image Frequency (Spurious Frequency) This is the signal present other than the desired signal, which when mixed with the local oscillator frequency will produce the same IF. FM : 5-10 V AM : 100 V For High Side Injection For Low Side Injection IF 455.00 kHz 262.50 kHz 10.70 MHz 21.4 MHz 41.25 MHz 45.75 MHz 30 or 60 MHz 70 MHz

Shape Factor

Sensitivity Common Values:

Bandwidth Improvement Where: Noise Figure Improvement IM LO RF IF = = = = Image Frequency ( ) Local Oscillator Frequency ( ) Radio Frequency ( ) Intermediate Frequency

Dynamic Range
( ( ) )

Image Frequency Rejection ( ) Where: = Image Frequency Rejection Q = Quality Factor = Rejection Ratio = In dB,

Fidelity This refers to the ability of the receiver to produce at the output, an exact replica of the original source information. Insertion Loss

Noise Temperature Equivalent Total IFRR ( ) In dB,

( )

Receiver Control Circuits Automatic Gain/ Volume Control It is used to limit unwanted variations in the output of the receiver caused by variations in strength of the received signal input. Squelch Circuit A squelch circuit is used to mute a receiver in the absence of a received signal. Blanding Circuit This circuit detects the occurrence of a high-amplitude short duration noise spike, and then mutes the receiver by shutting off a portion of the receiver for the duration of the pulse. S-meter A circuit designed to indicate signal strength for comparison and to aid in tuning the receiver and sometimes in adjusting the antenna.

Block Diagram of a PCM Demodulator

Methods of Generating PCM Signal Sampling It is an act of periodically holding value (sample) of the continually changing analog input signals. Nyguist Theorem:

where Pulse Modulation This is a modulation scheme wherein the method involves the method of converting information into pulse from source to destination. Types of Pulse Modulation Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Pulse width is proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) The position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to the amplitude of the analog signal. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) The amplitude of a constant-width, constant position pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the analog signal. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Analog signal is sampled and converted to a field-length, serial binary number for transmission. The binary number varies according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Block Diagram of a PCM Generator Number of Bits per PCM Code ( ) fs is the sampling frequency fa is the fundamental frequency Types of Sampling Natural Sampling Flat-top Sampling Quantizing This is a process of assigning discrete level to a time-varying quantity in multiple of some fixed unit, at a specified instant or specified repetition rate. Coding This is a process of converting the quantized discrete signals to PCM codes. PCM Parameters Dynamic Range

Resolution minimum voltage for every quantizing interval.

Bandpass Filter Sample/Hold Circuit ADC

eliminates aliasing or fold-over. converts sampled analog signal into pulse signal. converts sampled analog signal into pulse signal.

Quantizing Error

Coding Efficiency

Formation of Standard CCITT Group

Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio

where: v = r.m.s signal voltage q = quantizing voltage

Multiplexing Multiplexing is a method of transmitting two or more signals over the medium or carrier frequency. Methods of Multiplexing Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) FDM is a method of multiplexing in which the total frequency spectrum available is divided into channels, each of which occupies a particular frequency range all of the time. Main Components of FDM Filters Balanced Modulators Oscillators Amplifiers

Formation of Super Group (SG)

Simplified 2-channel Telephone Multiplex System

Formation of Master Group (MG)

Formation of Super Master Group (SMG)

Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) TDM is a method of multiplexing in which the total frequency available us used by each channel, but for only part of the time. Main Components of TDM Pulse Generators Synchronizing Circuits T-Carrier System (American Standard) DATA RATE SYSTEM VOICE CHANNEL (Mbps) T1 24 1.536 T2 96 6.144 T3 672 43.008 T4 4032 258.048 T5 8064 516.096 Where T5 = 2T4 = 12T3 = 84T2 = 336T1 E-Carrier System (European Standard) DATA RATE SYSTEM VOICE CHANNEL (Mbps) E1 30 2 E2 120 8 E3 480 32 E4 1920 128 E5 7680 512

OVERHEAD (Mbps) 0.008 0.168 1.728 16.128 44.064

LINE RATE (Mbps) 1.544 6.312 44.736 274.176 560.160

OVERHEAD (Mbps) 32 128 512 2048 8192

LINE RATE (Mbps) 2.048 8.192 32.768 131.072 524.288