RAKE Thesis

Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Electrical Engineering Thesis
CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver
CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver

Prepared By: Siang Pin Gan
School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering The University of Queensland
Supervisor: Dr. John Homer Oct 2002
Siang Pin Gan Unit 1, 242 Carmody Road, St. Lucia, Queensland 4067 Australia 18 October 2002 Head of School School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering The University of Queensland St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Dear Professor Simon Kaplan, In accordance with the requirements of the degree for Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) in the division of Electrical Engineering, I present the following thesis entitled CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver. This work was performed under the supervision and guidance of Dr. John Homer. I declare that the work submitted in this thesis is my own, except as acknowledged in the text, and has not been previously submitted for a degree at the University of Queensland or any other institution.
Yours sincerely,
Siang Pin Gan
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express sincere appreciation to the following individuals who have helped to make the completion of this thesis possible: Dr. John Homer - for his invaluable assistance and guidance in preparation of this manuscript. John has always been approachable, patient and encouraging in his supervision. Mum and Dad - for their selfless love and financial support to allow him in his pursue to becoming a professional engineer. Both of them have been inspirational especially during the writing of the thesis. Pei Lin - for the long night chats to advice on the improvements that can be made to the thesis. She has been exceptionally understanding and always the mental support in times of difficulties. Finally to the nine Tuscan brothers, for their friendship and the strong bond that kept them together over these two years where they had fun, peace, laughter and joy that will always be deeply remembered. Once again, thank you allJ
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement i Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables Abstract ix vi viii ii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background.........................................................................................................1 1.2 Motivation and Objectives .................................................................................2 1.3 Scope ...................................................................................................................2 1.4 Organization of the Report ................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2: CDMA SYSTEM CONCEPTS
2.1 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access .....................................................................4 2.2 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) ......................................................5 2.3 PN Sequence.......................................................................................................7 2.4 Walsh Code Matrix .............................................................................................8 2.5 Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation .......................................9 2.6 RAKE Receiver ................................................................................................. 11
ii
Table of Contents
iii
CHAPTER 3: SIGNAL PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 13

3.1 Reflection .......................................................................................................... 14 3.2 Diffraction ......................................................................................................... 15 3.3 Scattering .......................................................................................................... 15 3.4 Large-scale Fading ........................................................................................... 16 3.5 Small-scale Fading............................................................................................ 17
CHAPTER 4: ADAPTIVE FILTERS - THE LMS ALGORITHM
18
4.1 Overview of the LMS Adaptive Filter .............................................................. 18 4.2 Fundamentals of the LMS Algorithm.............................................................. 19 4.2.1 4.2.2 Derivation of the Standard LMS Algorithm......................................... 19 Convergence and Stability of the Standard LMS Algorithm............... 21
4.3 Activity Detection Algorithm ........................................................................... 21 4.3.1 4.3.2 Activity Measure ...................................................................................22 Activity Threshold.................................................................................22
CHAPTER 5: MATLAB MODEL
24
5.1 Overview............................................................................................................24 5.1.1 5.1.2 Three-Model Simulation.......................................................................25 GUI Implementation ............................................................................26
Table of Contents
iv
5.2 Bit Streams ........................................................................................................29 5.2.1 5.2.2 Training Sequence ................................................................................29 Input Bit Sequence ...............................................................................30
5.3 Walsh Code .......................................................................................................30 5.4 PN Sequence.....................................................................................................32 5.5 Complex Baseband Signal................................................................................32 5.6 Channel Impulse Response..............................................................................33 5.7 Thermal Noise ..................................................................................................34 5.8 Channel Estimate .............................................................................................35 5.9 RAKE Receiver .................................................................................................37 5.10 Decision Device ................................................................................................38
CHAPTER 6: FINDINDS AND DISCUSSION
39
6.1 Effects on Increasing the Noise Factor...........................................................40 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 Noise Factor = 2.0 ................................................................................ 41 Noise Factor = 8.0 ................................................................................43 Noise Factor = 9.0 ................................................................................45
6.2 Effects on Increasing the Threshold Factor....................................................47 6.2.1 6.2.2 Threshold Factor = 3.0 .........................................................................48 Threshold Factor = 6.0 .........................................................................50
6.3 SNR performance for the Three Models ......................................................... 51 6.4 Comparison on the Asymptotic Multipath Estimation Error Asymptotic .... 51
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
52
7.1 Summary of the Findings .................................................................................52 7.2 Suggestions to Possible Future Work ..............................................................53
Reference List
534
APPENDICES Appendix A.1: Appendix A.2: defined. Appendix A.3: defined. Current RAKE Receiver Model................Error! Bookmark not defined. Standard LMS Based RAKE Receiver ModelError! Bookmark not
CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver ModelError! Bookmark not
Appendix B: Three-Model CDMA RAKE Receiver Simulation with GUI .....Error! Bookmark not defined.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 4.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8
Basic model of the direct-sequence spread spectrum communications system................................................................................................................................... 5 Generation of a DS-SS signal with processing gain = 7 ............................................ 6 Transmitter of the DS-SS system ................................................................................... 7 Constellation diagram for QPSK.................................................................................... 9 Generalized transmitter using QPSK modulations on IQ-channel....................... 10 An implementation of a RAKE receiver with 3 correlators.................................... 12 The three mechanisms in signal propagation in a multipath channel.................... 12 Reflection of a wave........................................................................................................ 14 Diffraction of a wave ...................................................................................................... 15 Scattering of waves.......................................................................................................... 15 Signal strength decays as the path distance increases ............................................... 16 Large-scale and small-scale fading ................................................................................ 16 Tapped delay line model of a multipath fading channel .......................................... 17 LMS adaptive FIR filter in parallel with the time invariant unknown channel............................................................................................................................... 19 Flowchart of the simulation........................................................................................... 27 Flowchart of the GUI..................................................................................................... 28 Screenshot of the GUI ................................................................................................... 29 An example of the input verus output bit plot where bits 7 and 8 have errors .................................................................................................................................. 30 The Walsh code for the 10th row of the matrix function ....................................... 31 System model showing the transformation of the input bit steam to the complex baseband signal................................................................................................ 33 Channel impulse response of a multipath channel.................................................... 34 Taps below the activity threshold are detected as zero taps in the channel estimate.............................................................................................................................. 36 vi
List of Figures
vii
Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Figure 6.9 Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12 Figure 6.13 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16
Simulated results for the current RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 2.0....................................... 41 Simulated results for the standard LMS based RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 2.0 ....... 42 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 2.0....................... 42 Simulated results for the current RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 8.0....................................... 43 Simulated results for the standard LMS based RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 8.0 ....... 44 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 8.0....................... 44 Simulated results for the current RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 9.0....................................... 45 Simulated results for the standard LMS based RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 9.0 ....... 46 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 9.0....................... 46 Simulated results for the current RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for threshold factor = 3.0............................... 48 Simulated results for the standard LMS RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for threshold factor = 3.0............... 49 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for threshold factor = 3.0............... 49 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate for threshold factor = 6.0............................................................................... 50 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the asymptotic error and active taps detection for threshold factor = 6.0.................. 50 SNR comparison among the three models derived................................................. 51 Asymptotic multipath estimation error comparison between the LMS algorithm and the activity detection algorithm .......................................................... 51
LIST OF TABLES
Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5
Effects on varying the noise factor to 2.0................................................................... 41 Effects on varying the noise factor to 8.0................................................................... 43 Effects on varying the noise factor to 9.0................................................................... 45 Effects on varying the threshold factor to 3.0 ........................................................... 48 Effects on varying the threshold factor to 6.0 ........................................................... 50
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ABSTRACT
In the radio environment, transmitted signals arrive at the receiver via a direct, unobstructed path, or via multiple paths from the reflection, diffraction and scattering of surrounding objects such as buildings and trees. This multipath propagation causes the signal at the receiver to distort and fade significantly, leading to inter-symbol interference (ISI). Spread spectrum mobile communication systems use RAKE receivers to minimize these communication errors resulting from multipath effects. Ideally, the number of correlators in the RAKE receiver should match the number of multipath signals. In general, however the number of multipath signals is unknown and consequently RAKE receivers either contain an excessive number of correlators or the receiver performs sub optimally. The aim of this thesis is to incorporate a new signal detection technique within the RAKE receiver of the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system, which is able to identify every important multipath in the unknown channel using the Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm. This detection technique involves an activity measure and an activity threshold. A multipath signal whose activity measure exceeds the threshold is deemed as an important tap. The threshold has a theoretical basis, but may be increased to reduce the number of detected active multipath components resulting in a lower computational cost. Simulations demonstrate that the CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver has a significant improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), subsequently leading to a lower bit error rate than the current RAKE receiver with three correlators.
Index Terms Activity measure, activity threshold, asymptotic error, CDMA system, least mean square (LMS) algorithm, multipath effects, RAKE receiver.
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Chapter 1 1. INTRODUCTION
With the technology advancement in todays society, the ability to communicate with people on the move has evolved remarkably [1]. However, the transmission quality of the signal has deteriorated due to the modernization of the urban cities with skyscrapers and other manmade obstacles. This results in the transmitted signal having to take multiple paths before reaching the intended receiver. Through the multipath transmissions, the signal is severely distorted and attenuated. Methods have to be developed to improve on the signal quality. 1.1 Background Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems use the spread spectrum technology and the RAKE receiver concept to minimise communication errors resulting from multipath effects. In general, the number of multipath signals in the wireless channel is unknown and difficult to predict. The spread spectrum technology aims to spread the information signal over a wider bandwidth to make jamming and interception more difficult [2]. A RAKE receiver allows each arriving multipath signal to be individually demodulated and then combined to produce a stronger and more accurate signal [1]. The RAKE receiver in the IS-95A CDMA system uses three correlators and a searcher, while the TIA/EIA-95B CDMA system limits the number of correlators in the RAKE receiver to six [3]. The searcher receives pilot signals for synchronizing the spreading code. Both of these systems have a fix number of correlators and leads to the RAKE receivers either containing an excessive number of correlators or that the receiver performs sub optimally.
Chapter 1 Overview
1.2 Motivation and Objectives The ideal approach is to match the number of multipath signals with the number of correlators, but this would be a waste of resources and add unnecessary expense to the manufacture of the phone. This thesis aims to incorporate a new signal detection technique within the RAKE receiver, where the detection technique is used to determine the number of correlators required for demodulating the important multipath signals. This technique is unlike the method use in the current CDMA system, which has a fix number of correlators despite the number of multipath signals in the channel. The objective of this thesis is to develop a RAKE receiver through MATLAB simulation that is able to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) performance with a minimum number of correlators. 1.3 Scope This thesis revolves around the least mean square (LMS) algorithm [1], which is used to obtain a close representation of the channel impulse response via the implementation of an adaptive filter. A detection technique, better known as the activity detection algorithm is used to select the necessary multipath signals for demodulation. It requires an activity measure and an activity threshold to discriminate the important multipath signals from the weak and negligible ones. 1.4 Organization of the Report This thesis report consists of seven chapters and two appendices in total. The framework for the thesis is described as follows: Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction about the CDMA system and the need for an implementation of this thesis. Chapter 2 explains the basic concept and principles of the CDMA system. It describes the spread spectrum technology and the functionality of the RAKE receiver. Chapter 3 discusses the signal propagation characteristics in a wireless radio channel and how the resultant waveform at the receiver can be severely distorted by the three propagation mechanisms.
Chapter 1 Overview
Chapter 4 contains the concept of the LMS algorithm and the activity detection algorithm, which constitutes to the new signal detection technique incorporated within the RAKE receiver. This signal detection technique forms the basis for the development of this thesis. Chapter 5 presents the methodology behind the foundation of this software simulation programme created using MATLAB. Each component of the simulated CDMA environment is described in details in this chapter. The three RAKE receiver models developed: (1) Current RAKE receiver; (2) Standard LMS based RAKE receiver; and (3) Detection guided RAKE receiver, are used to show comparisons for the SNR performance and output bit errors. Chapter 6 includes the simulation results obtain from the software simulation programme in chapter 5. The effects on increasing the noise factor and threshold factor are investigated and the findings are recorded and discussed. Finally, chapter 7 gives the reader an overall summary on the collated results. This chapter concludes with recommendations and improvements for any future research work in this topic.
Chapter 2 2. CDMA SYSTEM CONCEPTS
The rapid worldwide growth in cellular telephone subscribers over the past decade has evidently showed that the wireless communication is an effective means for transferring information in todays society. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) are two approaches that have contributed to this advancement in the telecommunications industry. However, the widespread success of these communications systems has led to the development for newer and higher technology techniques and standards in order to facilitate high-speed communication for multimedia, data and video in addition to voice transmissions [1]. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is todays dominant technology for the evolution of third generation (3G) mobile communications systems [4] with the development of two major schemes: Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) and CDMA2000. The W-CDMA technology otherwise known as the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) is designed with the intention of providing an upgrade path for the existing Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) [5] while CDMA2000 is based on the fundamental technologies of IS-95, IS-95A (cdmaOne) as well as the 2.5G IS-95B systems [6]. These two schemes are similar for their ability to provide high data rates and the efficient use of bandwidth but are incompatible as they use different chip rates. The following sections of this chapter will describe and explain the basic concepts behind the CDMA technology. 2.1 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access The spread spectrum modulation techniques are originally developed for use in the military and intelligence communications systems due to their resistance against jamming signals and low probability of interception (LPI) [2]. They are immune to various kinds of noise and multipath distortion. Apart from these advantages, spread spectrum signals also
Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts
have the capability to support multiple users at the same time by assigning each user with an orthogonal spreading code. This will be further discussed in section 2.2. A number of modulation techniques have been developed to generate spread spectrum signals. These can be generally classified as direct-sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS), frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FH-SS), time-hopping spread spectrum (TH-SS), chirp modulation and the hybrid combination modulation [2]. We will look into the functionality of the DS-SS and how this modulation technique is incorporated to the CDMA system. 2.2 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) The DS-SS technique is one of the most popular forms of spread spectrum. This is probably due to the simplicity with which direct sequencing can be implemented. Figure 2.1 shows the basic model and the key characteristics that make up the DS-SS communications system [7]. In this form of modulation, a pseudo-random noise generator creates a spreading code or better known as the pseudo-noise (PN) code sequence. Each bit of the original input data is directly modulated with this PN sequence and is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal. On the receiving end, only the same PN sequence is capable of demodulating the spread spectrum signal to successfully recover the input data [2].
m(t)
Channel Encoder
Modulator
s(t)
Channel
s(t)
DeModulator
Channel Decoder
m(t)
Input data
Spreading code /PN sequence
c(t)
De-spreading code /PN sequence
c(t)
Output data
Pseudorandom Noise Generator
Pseudorandom Noise Generator
Figure 2.1 Basic model of the direct-sequence spread spectrum communications system The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is directly proportional to the number of bits used for the PN sequence. A 7-bit code sequence spreads the signal across a wider frequency band that is seven times greater than a 1-bit code sequence, otherwise termed as having a
processing gain of seven. Figure 2.2 illustrates the generation of a DS-SS signal using an exclusive-OR (XOR) operation. The XOR obeys the following rules:
00 = 0 0 1 = 1 1 0 = 1 11 = 0
0 Input data m(t) +1
-1 10010111101011010011011010010110001 PN sequence +1 c(t) -1 Tc = chip interval Transmitted signal s(t) +1 10010110010100101100111010011001110
-1
Figure 2.2 Generation of a DS-SS signal with processing gain = 7 Note that an input data bit of zero causes the PN sequence coding bits to be transmitted without inversion, while an input data bit of one inverts the coding bits. Rather than to represent the binary data with bits 0s and 1s, the input data and PN sequence are converted into a bipolar waveform with amplitude values of 1. This is further illustrated in figure 2.3.
DS-SS Input data Polar NRZ B Rb = 1/Tb m(t) s(t) = m(t).c(t) Polar NRZ waveform c(t) Polar NRZ where B = Bandwidth of signal Rb = Bit rate for m(t) Tb = Bit interval for m(t) Tc = Chip interval for c(t) Figure 2.3 B NRb = 1/Tc
PN Sequence of period N
Transmitter of the DS-SS system
From Figure 2.3, we are also able to identify two criteria that need to be met in order to be considered as a DS-SS system [8]: (1) The bandwidth of the transmitted signal s(t) is much wider as compared to the input data m(t); and (2) This wide bandwidth is caused by the modulation of the spreading signal c(t) and the intended receiver requires this identical signal for retrieving the message signal m(t). In the next few sections, we will look into the functionality of the various components for a Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) system. 2.3 PN Sequence The DS-CDMA system uses two general categories of spreading sequences: PN sequences and orthogonal codes. As mentioned in section 2.2, the PN sequence is produced by the pseudo-random noise generator that is simply a binary linear feedback shift register, consisting of XOR gates and a shift register. This PN generator has the ability to create an identical sequence for both the transmitter and the receiver, and yet retaining the desirable properties of a noise-like randomness bit sequence. A PN sequence has many characteristics such as having a nearly equal number of zeros and ones, very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence and very low cross correlation with any other signals such as interference and noise [8]. However, it is able to correlate very well with itself and its inverse. Another important aspect is the autocorrelation of the sequence as it decides the ability to
synchronize and lock the spreading code to the received signal [2]. This effectively combats the effects of multipath interference and improves the SNR. M-sequences, Gold codes and Kasami sequences are examples of this class of sequences. 2.4 Walsh Code Matrix Walsh codes are the most common orthogonal codes used in CDMA applications [1]. These codes correspond to the rows of a special square matrix known as the Hadamard matrix. For a set of Walsh codes of length n, there consists of n rows to form an n x n Walsh code square matrix. The IS-95 system uses a 64 by 64 Walsh function matrix. The first row of this matrix contains a string of all zeros with each of the subsequent rows containing different combinations of bit 0s and 1s. Every row is orthogonal and has an equal occurrence for the binary bits. When implemented with the CDMA system, each mobile user uses one of the 64 row sequences in the matrix as a spreading code, providing zero cross correlation among all other users [7]. This matrix is defined recursively as follows:
W 1 = [0]
W = n W 2n W n
W W
n
n
where n is a power of 2 indicating the various dimensions of the matrix and Wn denotes the logical NOT operation on all bits in that matrix. The three matrices W2, W4 and W8, show the Walsh function for dimension 2, 4 and 8 respectively. 0 0 0 0 W 8 = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 = 0 1
0 0 W 4 = 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
Each row in the 64 by 64 Walsh matrix corresponds to a channel number. Channel number 0 is mapped to the first row of the Walsh matrix, which is the all zeros code. This channel is also known as the pilot channel and is used to train and estimate the impulse response of the mobile radio channel.
To compute the cross correlation between the sequences, we will need to convert the bits in the matrix to the antipodal form of values 1. Shifted versions of the Walsh sequence can result in a high cross correlation thus requiring tight synchronization to be implemented. However, all users of the same CDMA channel can be synchronized to an accuracy of one chip interval with the use of a common long PN sequence that also functions as a data scrambler. 2.5 Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation In Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) [8], the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data. For M-ary PSK, the number of bits to represent one symbol is given as: n = log 2 m (2.1)
where n is the number of bits per symbol and m is the number of possible levels to represent the signal. From the equation (2.1), we determine that the QPSK uses two bits to represent any one of its four-phasor symbols. Figure 2.4 shows the constellation diagram for QPSK and how these four levels of signal correspond to carrier phases, of 45, 135, 225 and 315. Q - Imaginary (quadrature) (0, 1) (1, 1) = phase angle I - Real (in phase) (0, 0) (1, 0)
Bit
Bit
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
225 135 315 45
I -1 -1 1 1
Q -1 1 -1 1
Figure 2.4 Constellation diagram for QPSK
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Figure 2.5 shows a generalized transmitter using the QPSK modulation technique. The modulating signal m(t) is a stream of binary bits with a data rate of R = 1/Tb , where Tb is the width of each bit. This input stream is divided into two separate bit streams known as the I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature phase) channel [8]. The odd bits of the input stream are processed by the I-channel while the even bits are processed by the Q-channel. Both channels are modulated on the same carrier frequency, fc and have a bit rate of R/2 bits-persecond. However, the carrier signal in the Q-channel is shifted by 90 to achieve a sine waveform. The difference between these two modulated signals is obtained for transmission over the radio channel.
Modulating signal m(t) R = 1/Tb 2-bit serialto-parallel converter R/2 bps R/2 bps
Odd bit An = 1 I-channel I(t) cos 2f c t Oscillator f = fc -90 Phase shift Q-channel Q(t) sin 2f c t + Transmitted signal s(t)
Even bit Bn = 1 Figure 2.5 Generalized transmitter using QPSK modulations on IQ-channel From figure 2.5, QPSK is generated by using two quadrature carriers and its transmitted signal s(t) can be defined as:
s (t ) = Ac I (t ) cos 2f c t Ac Q (t ) sin 2f c t
(2.2)
where the complex envelope

g (t ) = I (t ) + jQ (t ) = Ac e j ( t )
(2.3)
is a function of the modulating signal m(t). Ac is a positive constant that specify the power level of the signal and is the phase angle of the signal.
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2.6 RAKE Receiver CDMA systems use the spread spectrum technique with spreading codes designed to provide very low correlation between successive chips (see section 2.2). Due to the signal propagation characteristics of the wireless communications channel, the receiver may receive one direct line-of-sight (LOS) wave and many multiple versions of the transmitted signal at a spread of arrival times. If these multipath signals are delayed in time by more than one chip interval, the despreading process will make the uncorrelated noise appear as negligible at the receiver. This leads to the implementation of a RAKE receiver [1] within a CDMA system, as it is able to recover each multipath signal and combine them with the correct delays to achieve a significant improvement in the SNR of the output signal. The RAKE receiver however, works only on the basis that these multipath components are practically uncorrelated from one another when their relative propagation delays exceed a chip period. Figure 2.6 shows the model of a RAKE receiver with three correlators. This RAKE receiver design is used in the IS-95 system, where each of the three strongest time-shifted multipath signals is demodulated and weighted independently. The spreading code in the despreading process needs to be synchronized to the delay spread of the multipath signal, so that the outputs of each correlator can be summed to produce a stronger and more accurate signal. Note that in a RAKE receiver, if the outputs from one correlator are corrupted by fading, the corrupted signal may be discounted through the weighting process. Decisions based on the combination of the three separate correlator outputs are able to provide a form of diversity, which can overcome fading and thereby improve the CDMA reception. The outputs of these three correlators are denoted as Z1, Z2 and Z3. The overall signal Z is given by: Z ' = m Z m
m =1 3
(2.4)
where m represents each of the three correlators. Each correlator of the RAKE receiver is represented by three coefficients: (1) Time delay; (2) Phase shift; (3) Amplitude gain/attenuation, as shown in figure 2.6. In this thesis, these coefficients are estimated via the LMS algorithm (see Chapter 4).
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In summary, this chapter briefly explains the CDMA concept from the transmitter front to the receiver end. In the next chapter, we will look at how signal is propagated in a wireless channel and how it may affect the CDMA system.
Distorted Signal s(t)
Correlator 1
Correlator 2
Correlator 3
Delay s1 Spreading Code Phase & Gain Adjustors s1 , s1 Z1
(.)dt
Decision Device
m(t) Output data
Figure 2.6 An implementation of a RAKE receiver with 3 correlators
Chapter 3 3. SIGNAL PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Wireless communication has proved to be vital in our daily lives. However, the performance of the wireless communications systems is often limited or corrupted due to the nature of the mobile radio channel. In an urban environment, the transmission path between the transmitter and the receiver is severely obstructed by buildings and trees. Hence, a transmitted signal may travel through a direct line-of-sight (LOS) path and many multiple paths depending on the characteristics of the radio channel. Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable, radio channels are extremely random and difficult to model. In general, a signal transmitting in a channel experiences two types of fading: (1) Largescale fading; and (2) Small-scale fading. The mechanisms behind these two fading types are diverse, but can generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction and scattering [1]. These three propagation mechanisms are illustrated in figure 3.1. Other transmission impairments in the wireless channel include free space loss, thermal noise and atmospheric absorption [9]. In this chapter, we focus mainly on the three propagation mechanisms that cause the occurrence of small-scale multipath fading. The concept of how a RAKE receiver can be implemented to recover the time-dispersed signals in a multipath channel is explained in section 2.6.
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Chapter 3 Signal Propagation Characteristics For Wireless Communication
14
Figure 3.1 The three mechanisms in signal propagation in a multipath channel 3.1 Reflection Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the propagating wave [1]. This reflected wave as illustrated in figure 3.2 may interfere constructively or destructively at the receiver due to the change in phase shift after reflection. Sources for reflections include the surface of the earth, buildings and walls.
incident wave
reflected wave Figure 3.2 Reflection of a wave
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3.2 Diffraction Figure 3.3 shows that diffraction can occur at the edge of an impenetrable body or at a surface with sharp irregularities that is large compared to the wavelength of the radio wave [7]. The secondary waves resulting from such edges or surfaces are partially reflected and retransmitted with a bend of waves around the obstacle. This allows the signal to be transmitted even when there is no LOS path between the transmitter and the receiver.
primary wave secondary wave Figure 3.3 Diffraction of a wave
3.3 Scattering Scattering occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver consists of large amount of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength of the signal [1]. Figure 3.4 shows that the scattered waves can be produced by rough surfaces or by other irregularities in the channel such as foliage and traffic signs. scattered waves propagating wave scattered waves
Figure 3.4 Scattering of waves
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3.4 Large-scale Fading Large-scale fading is primarily attributed to path loss [1] when the received signal strength decays over relatively large distances (several hundreds or thousands of meters) between the transmitter and the receiver as shown in figure 3.5. It is otherwise known as slow fading or shadowing, and is characterised by a long delay spread in figure 3.6.
Figure 3.5 Signal strength decays as the path distance increases
Large-scale fading: Signal fades gradually with distance
Small-scale fading: Signal fades rapidly
Figure 3.6 Large-scale and small-scale fading
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3.5 Small-scale Fading Small-scale fading as shown in figure 3.6, manifests itself as rapid fluctuations in the voltage envelope of the received signal over a short period of time or travel distance (a few wavelengths) [1]. It is caused by the interference between two or more versions of the transmitted signal arriving at the receiver with a spread of different times. These time-shifted signals are called multipath signals, which can be represented as taps in an impulse-response model of a channel. Effects of multipath fading can be classified as flat or frequency selective. For flat fading, only the amplitude of the received signal can vary due to the constructive and destructive interference from the time-shifted signals. Frequency selective fading is due to the time dispersion of the received signal and is the cause of inter-symbol interference (ISI). A tapped-delay line model shown in figure 3.7 demonstrates both the properties of flat and frequency selective fading. Each multipath signal has a different time delay (), amplitude level () and phase shift (), which will interfere with one another at the receiver, producing a totally distorted version of the original transmitted signal with the additive of noise.
Transmitted signal
u(k)
0 , 0 , 0 1 , 1 , 1 2 , 2 , 2
Direct Path LOS
Faded Signal
Delay
Multipath 1 AWGN (Noise)
Delay
Multipath 2
Delay
N , N , N
Multipath N
Figure 3.7 Tapped delay line model of a multipath fading channel
Chapter 4 4. ADAPTIVE FILTERS THE LMS ALGORITHM
Adaptive filtering is a key ingredient for fighting echoes in the communication architecture [10], [11]. An echo, in any context, is a delayed and perhaps a distorted version from the original transmitted signal [12]. The occurrence of echoes in a communication system relates to the multipath signals that are present in the communication channel. In voice transmission, the magnitude and spectral distortions caused by echoes deteriorate the transmission quality due to the overlapping of different time-shifted signals over a spread of arrival times at the receiver. Echo cancellation [12] is possible with the implementation of the adaptive filter. Adaptive filters can be categorized according to their type, structure and algorithm implementation [11]. The adaptive filter considered in this thesis is a non-linear type; maximum likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE) filter structure implemented using the least mean square (LMS) algorithm. The following sections in this chapter explain the concept of the LMS adaptive finite impulse response (FIR) filter and the implementation of the activity detection algorithm. 4.1 Overview of the LMS Adaptive Filter The system we consider throughout this thesis is shown in figure 4.1. This system describes the estimation of an unknown channel through the implementation of the LMS adaptive filtering via parallel configuration [13]. Both the unknown channel and the adaptive FIR filter model are excited by a training sequence, u(k). The adaptive FIR filter output, yy(k) is compared with the unknown channel output, y(k) to produce the error signal, e(k). This error represents the difference between the unknown channel and the model output, which is also equivalent to the noise, nn(k) added into the system. The error signal is then inputted to the LMS adaptive algorithm, which corrects the individual tap weights of the filter. This process is repeated through several iterations until the error signal becomes sufficiently small.
18
Chapter 4 Adaptive Filters - The LMS Algorithm
19
Through this implementation, the noise in the channel is effectively cancelled and the resultant FIR filter response now closely represents that of the previously unknown channel.
Unknown channel Pilot Signal / Training Sequence u(k) Channel Impulse Response (h) z(k) = u(k) * h
Noise nn(k) Error signal e(k) = y(k) yy(k) -
y(k) = z(k) + nn(k) +
Channel Estimate (hh) yy(k) = u(k) * hh Adaptive FIR filter LMS Algorithm
Figure 4.1 LMS adaptive FIR filter in parallel with the time invariant unknown channel 4.2 Fundamentals of the LMS Algorithm The LMS algorithm was first proposed by Widrow and Hoff at the Stanford University in 1960 [10]. Until now, the algorithm is still widely used due to its simplicity and cheap implementation [11]. The LMS algorithm is seen as having low computational complexity, good stability properties, relatively good robustness against implementation errors and simplicity of its behaviour. The following subsections describe the LMS algorithm equation. 4.2.1 Derivation of the Standard LMS Algorithm [12], [13], [15], [16]
From figure 4.1, we assume that the unknown channel is linear and time invariant modelled by a FIR filter, h(z-1) given by: h( z 1 ) = h0 + h1 z 1 + + hn1 z n+1 (4.1)
where z-1 is the unit delay operator and n is the tap length. The LMS adaptive FIR filter, hh has a tap delay line structure given by: hh( z 1 ) = hh0 + hh1 z 1 + + hhm 1 z m +1 (4.2)
20
where m is the tap length for the adaptive filter. All tap coefficients of hh(k) are initially set to zero. The training sequence, u(k) and noise, nn(k) is assumed to be a zero mean wide sense stationary process and that these two signals are uncorrelated with each other. The observed output from the unknown channel is given by: z (k ) = u (k ) h or where z (k ) = U ( k ) T h means the convolution function and U (k ) = u (k ) u (k 1) u (k n + 1) h = h0 h1 L hn1
T T
(4.3a) (4.3b)
(4.4)
(4.5)
The channel output obtain from equation (4.3b) is additive to the noise, nn(k) and the output signal y(k) is given by: y (k ) = U (k ) T h + nn(k ) The output from the adaptive filter is given by: yy (k ) = U (k )T hh where hh = hh0 hh1 L hhn 1
T
(4.6)
(4.7)
(4.8)
The output of the adaptive filter is subtracted from the output of the unknown channel to obtain the error signal, e(k): e(k ) = y (k ) yy (k ) = U (k ) T (h hh) + nn(k ) (4.9)
21
The error signal, e(k) obtained in equation (4.9) shall ideally be equal to the noise, nn(k). This will mean that the LMS algorithm has successfully estimated the unknown channel, h. The LMS algorithm updates as the tap coefficients by weighting them using the equation: hh(k + 1) = hh * (k ) + e * (k ) U (k ) (4.10)
where * is the complex conjugate, U(k) is the training sequence vector obtain from equation (4.4) and is known as the adaptation parameter or the step size factor (see section 4.2.2). 4.2.2 Convergence and Stability of the Standard LMS Algorithm The step size, is a major parameter in the LMS algorithm derived in equation (4.10). This parameter is considered important as it influences the convergence and stability rate of the LMS adaptive filter [11]. A smaller results in a slower convergence rate but have a more accurate and stable result, while a larger have a faster convergence rate but leads to an unstable system. The selection of the step size, is therefore crucial for its performance to provide a good convergence rate and stability in the system. The LMS algorithm will converge and remain stable as long as the step size fulfils the range given by: 0< < 2
i = k n +1
(4.11)
2
(i )
where k is the current time interval and n is the tap length. 4.3 Activity Detection Algorithm The focal point of this thesis is the detection of important taps in the channel impulse response. The impulse response of a wireless channel may be represented by sparsely separated active taps interspersed with zero or inactive taps [14]. The LMS adaptive filter as shown in figure 4.1 generally estimates the impulse response with accurate tap positions and coefficients. However, this adaptation process includes the estimation of the zero taps as weak and negligible responses that may lead to a high computational cost as well as poor asymptotic performance and convergence rate. Dr. John Homer proposed an active tap detection algorithm [12], [13], [14], [15] that involves estimating only the active taps. This detection algorithm requires an activity measure
22
and an activity threshold, which are structurally consistent for white input signals particularly examine in this thesis. The algorithm uses an approximate least squares (LS) based cost function to locate the active taps within the impulse response and subsequently estimates these detected taps [18]. With the implementation of this detection algorithm, we are able to modify the activity threshold for selecting the more significant multipath signals for demodulation. This would allow a lower computational cost for reducing the number of correlators in use and even lead to better asymptotic performance. The formula for the activity measure and activity threshold is shown in the next sections. 4.3.1 Activity Measure
Under the assumption of a white input signal as mentioned in section 4.2.1, the activity measure, XN is given by: N y (k ) u (k j ) k = j +1
k = j +1 2
X N ( j) =
(4.12)
(k j )
where y*(k) is the complex conjugate of y(k), j is the active tap index and N is the current sample interval. To discriminate the active taps from inactive taps, we need the activity threshold such that if XN (j) is more than the threshold value, the tap will only be detected as an active tap. The formula for the activity threshold is discussed in the next subsection. 4.3.2 Activity Threshold The activity threshold has a theoretical basis [13] and is determined by the threshold factor given by: TN = (threshold _ factor ). y . log N
2
(4.13)
where y2 is the variance of y(k). y =

2
1 N
y (k )
2 k =1
(4.14)
23
In this thesis, we investigate the effect of varying the threshold factor in the activity threshold as in equation (4.13). It is expected that an increase in the threshold factor will reduce the number of detected active taps in the impulse response of the adaptive filter. The active tap criterion is given by: X N > TN (4.15)
where XN is the activity measure in equation (4.12) and TN is the activity threshold in equation (4.13). The active tap criterion is implemented to the RAKE receiver in the CDMA system where the algorithm is used to select the significant multipath signals for demodulation. In the next chapter, we look into how the LMS algorithm and the activity detection algorithm is implemented into the CDMA system using the MATLAB model.
Chapter 5 5. MATLAB MODEL
MATLAB (short for MATrix LABoratory) is a special-purpose computer program optimised to perform engineering and scientific calculations. The use of MATLAB version 6.5 for this thesis enables the development of simulations, which compute the complicated mathematical formulas and display the simulation results in a graphical form for analysis [17]. The mathematical formulas include calculation of the LMS algorithm, activity measure and the processing of the information signal in a simulated CDMA communications environment, with the presence of thermal noise and multipath effects. Results such as the SNR performance, bit errors, activity detection and asymptotic multipath estimation error are examined for analytical discussion in chapter 6. A Graphics User Interface (GUI) is created to aid users in developing an easy-to-use and friendly environment. Users are able to enter various design parameters and select different multipath channels to observe and compare the output results. The following sections will discuss about the functionality of the simulation models and the operation of the GUI. 5.1 Overview From the theoretical knowledge provided in the earlier chapters on CDMA systems and the concept of the LMS algorithm with activity detection, we have come up with an innovative idea of integrating these two technologies together to increase the SNR performance of the received signal. The implementation of this new signal detection technique within the RAKE receiver is named CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver and is designed to demodulate all important multipath signals in the unknown channel. The estimation of the unknown channel is based on the use of an adaptive filter via the LMS algorithm and the important multipath signals are identified with the activity detection algorithm. This subsequently determines the number of correlators for the RAKE receiver where each correlator demodulates each important multipath signal individually. With the
24
Chapter 5 MATLAB Model
25
number of correlators increased in the RAKE receiver, the received signal power will correspondingly improve leading to a better signal reception. However, the addition of the correlators results in a higher computational cost to the system. The activity threshold is implemented so that only the important multipath signals above this threshold will be demodulated, ignoring the small and negligible signals. The value of the activity threshold factor may be increased to detect fewer multipath signals leading to fewer correlators in the RAKE receiver and hence a lower overall cost of the system. 5.1.1 Three-Model Simulation
In this thesis, we have developed three CDMA models to show the performance of the CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver using the MATLAB simulation software. Figure 5.1 shows the flowchart for the simulation of the three models and the respective source codes can be found in Appendix A.1 A.3. The design parameters used in the computation of a particular simulation are kept similar for the three models in order to obtain a fair comparison. The functionality of each component in the flowchart is explained in sections 5.2 5.9. The first model represents the current CDMA RAKE receiver that utilises three correlators. The LMS algorithm is used to estimate the unknown channel and if the channel estimate has more than three active taps, this current system will only allow the three strongest time-shifted multipath signals to be demodulated. In this way, other multipath signals that are as important will not be demodulated and this may result in bit errors within the recovered information signal. Results showing this phenomenon can be found in section 6.1.2. The second CDMA RAKE receiver model that we develop is based on the standard LMS algorithm. This model detects all the multipath signals and each signal is demodulated by a correlator. Although this may be seen as the ideal case in which all multipath signals are demodulated to enable an increase in the SNR performance, this model is not possible in the real world as it is hugely expensive and impractical to implement. The third model is the CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver of which this thesis is based on. This model determines the number of correlators to be utilised, depending on the number of active multipath signals detected. However, if more than seven multipath signals
26
are detected, only the seven strongest signals will be demodulated. The characteristics of this model proved to be more advantageous than the prior two models for its ability to minimise the number of correlators in the RAKE receiver and yet maintain an improved SNR performance. 5.1.2 GUI Implementation
The GUI can be represented in a flowchart as shown in figure 5.2. It has five user-input variables to allow for different combinations. These five design parameters namely: (1) Walsh code; (2) Noise factor; (3) Step size; (4) Threshold factor; and (5) Multipath channel selection must be input before any simulation process can take place. The multipath channel selection option is interactive as it helps the user to visualize the impulse response of the selected channel. The simulated output shows the SNR performance and the number of correlators in use for each of the three models. Graphs that correspond to the channel estimate, Walsh code plot, input verus output bit plot and asymptotic error can be displayed by clicking on the respective push buttons of each model. For easy referencing and identification, each model is associated with a unique background colour. Figure 5.3 features the screenshot of the GUI. The current RAKE receiver model is yellow in colour, the standard LMS based RAKE receiver is green in colour and the detection guided RAKE receiver is cyan in colour. The complete GUI coding can be found in Appendix B.
Chapter 5 MATLAB Model START
27
Generate PN Sequence PN_seq_I/Q
Generate Walsh Code Wodd, Weven
Generate Bit Stream training_signal/input_bit
Generate Multipath Ch. h
xor
Spreading Code Generated (Bits in antipodal form) Wcode_PN_seq_I/Q
multiplication
QPSK Modulated Signal Real, Imag
Complex Baseband Signal (Real + Imag*j) complex_baseband_signal
conv
Standard LMS Algorithm / Activity Detection Algorithm
Thermal Noise Added (channel_output + thermal_noise) y
Current RAKE Receiver with three Correlators (Selects the 3 strongest taps from the channel estimate) rake1_output_total
Standard LMS Based RAKE Receiver (Selects all taps from the channel estimate) rake2_output_total
Detection Guided RAKE Receiver (Selects taps above activity threshold / a max of 7 strongest taps from the channel estimate) rake3_output_total
Display Recovered Bit Stream
END
Figure 5.1 Flowchart of the simulation
Chapter 5 MATLAB Model START
28
To try another simulation
User to enter the design parameters: 1. Walsh code (1-64) 2. Noise factor (1-15) 3. Step size (0-0.075) 4. Threshold factor (1-10) 5. Select a multipath channel
No Click on Simulate? Yes Display SNR for each of the three models Display number of RAKE receiver utilised for each of the three models
Click on Channel Estimate? Yes
Click on Walsh Code Plot? Yes
Click on I/P vs O/P Plot? Yes
Click on Asymptotic Error? Yes
Click on Algorithm Compare? Yes
Plot figure for selected function
Exit? Yes END
No
Figure 5.2 Flowchart of the GUI
29
Figure 5.3 Screenshot of the GUI 5.2 Bit Streams Two types of bit streams have been employed in all the three models we considered. The first type is the training sequence that comprises of 150 pseudo-randomised bits while the second type is the input data bit stream that contains 10 pseudo-randomised bits. 5.2.1 Training Sequence
A training sequence is used in the simulations for estimating the channel impulse response. The rand function generates arrays of random numbers whose elements are uniformly distributed in the interval (0,1). This training sequence is then converted an antipodal set containing only amplitudes values of 1. The training sequence is generated as follows: training_signal = fix(2*rand(1,150)); training_signal_polar = (2*training_signal - 1); % training sequence in antipodal form
30
5.2.2
Input Bit Sequence
The input bit stream is also generated using the rand function. This input sequence simulates the information signal to be sent to the channel for retrieving by the RAKE receiver. Any errors resulting from the transmission can be shown in the input verus output bit plot in figure 5.4. The coding for generating the random information signal is highlighted below: input_bit = fix(2*rand(1,10)); input_bit_polar = (2*input_bit - 1); % input signal in antipodal form
Figure 5.4 An example of the input verus output bit plot where bits 7 and 8 have errors 5.3 Walsh Code A 64 by 64 Walsh function matrix (see section 2.4) is used to generate the Walsh codes for the simulations. A user is able to choose from any of the 64 Walsh codes by entering a number (1-64) in the Step 1 edit box on the GUI. An example of the 10th row on the Walsh code matrix is plotted in figure 5.5. The following code describes the generation of the Walsh matrix:
31
W1 = [0]; W2 = [W1 W1; W1 ~W1]; W4 = [W2 W2; W2 ~W2]; W8 = [W4 W4; W4 ~W4]; W16 = [W8 W8; W8 ~W8]; W32 = [W16 W16; W16 ~W16]; W64 = [W32 W32; W32 ~W32]; % 64 x 64 Walsh code matrix
Figure 5.5 The Walsh code for the 10th row of the matrix function The first row of the Walsh matrix contains the all zero bits, which corresponds to the pilot signal used for training the channel estimate: Wcode = W64(1, :); % training sequence
The Walsh code sequence needs to be separated into the I and Q-channel for QPSK modulation. The odd bits for the Walsh code, Wodd are used in the I-channel whereas the even bits, Weven are used in the Q-channel: Wodd = Wcode(1:2:length(Wcode)); % Walsh code for I-channel Weven = Wcode(2:2:length(Wcode)); % Walsh code for Q-channel
32
Both Wodd and Weven are then XOR with the corresponding PN sequences to obtain the randomness property. With the aim of achieving a zero DC signal value, the bits are converted to the antipodal form. 5.4 PN Sequence The advantages of using a PN sequence are mentioned in section 2.3. The PN sequences are typically periodically generated using linear feedback shift registers. However, we use the rand function in the simulation to approximate the generation of the PN sequences and we assume that the length of the PN sequence corresponds to the length of the bit streams. The bits for the PN sequence are randomly generated as shown in the coding: PNseq_I = fix(2*rand(1,length(bit_stream)*32)); % PN sequence for the I-channel PNseq_Q = fix(2*rand(1,length(bit_stream)*32)); % PN sequence for the Q-channel
The PN sequence is then XOR with the selected Walsh code in the I and Q-channel as illustrated in figure 5.6. This forms the spreading code for the CDMA spread spectrum system. An identical spreading code is made available at the receiving end for the recovering of input signals. The system model for QPSK modulation in a CDMA transmitter is shown in figure 5.6. The XOR operation is as follows: for n = (1:length(bit_stream)) WcodePN_I = xor(Wodd,PNseq_I((32*(n-1)+1):32*n)); % spreading code for I-channel WcodePN_Q = xor(Weven,PNseq_Q((32*(n-1)+1):32*n)); % spreading code for the Q-channel WcodePN_I_polar(32*(n-1)+1:32*n) = (2*WcodePN_I - 1); % Q-spreading code in antipodal WcodePN_Q_polar(32*(n-1)+1:32*n) = (2*WcodePN_Q - 1); % I-spreading code in antipodal
end
5.5 Complex Baseband Signal The odd bits of the input stream are spread by WcodePN_I_polar while the even bits of the input stream is spread by WcodePN_Q_polar. In this simulation, the transmitted signal is not modulated by a carrier frequency and is represented as the complex baseband signal. The transformation of the input signal to the complex baseband signal is shown in figure 5.6. The following code extracts explains how the complex baseband signal is obtained:
33
for n = (1:length(bit_stream)) Real = [training_signal_polar(n)*WcodePN_I_polar((32*(n-1)+1):32*n)]; Imag = [training_signal_polar(n)*WcodePN_Q_polar((32*(n-1)+1):32*n)]; complex_baseband_signal(32*(n-1)+1:32*n)=Real + Imag*j; % complex baseband signal end
PNseq_I
Wodd
WcodePN_I
xor I-channel
input_bit
complex_baseband_signal
Q-channel xor
Weven WcodePN_Q
PNseq_Q
Figure 5.6 System model showing the transformation of the input bit steam to the complex baseband signal 5.6 Channel Impulse Response A total of four channel impulse responses have been created to represent the different multipath channels. Channels 1-3 have a prefixed number of important multipath signals to illustrate the findings in chapter 6 whereas channel 4 is used to simulate a randomised impulse response. The GUI allows the user to choose from any one of the multipath channels for simulation by selecting from the option buttons. The selected channel can be viewed instantly from the GUI, thus enabling the user to visually select the desired channel. The coding listed below has twenty taps with three prominent multipath signals having the amplitude values of 2.1, 3.1 and 2.5 respectively as shown in figure 5.7:
34
% channel impulse response, h h = [0,0,(0.1*randn(1,2)),2.1,(0.1*randn(1,5)),3.1,(0.1*randn(1,5)),-2.5,(0.1*randn(1,3))];
Figure 5.7 Channel impulse response of a multipath channel 5.7 Thermal Noise Thermal noise is added into the system for simulating the real mobile radio channel. This noise component is complex and random in nature whose elements are normally distributed with zero mean. The length of the thermal noise corresponds to the length of the bit streams, which indicates that every bit is affected by the noise in the system. In this thesis, noise is induced into the signal in the multipath channel. The GUI allows the user to enter a noise factor for the simulation in the Step2 edit box, which represents the root-mean-square (r.m.s) value of the noise signal. The square of the r.m.s value gives the noise power. The effect of varying the noise power will be examined and used for performance comparison of the three models. The noise is generated as follows: thermal_noise = randn(1,length(bit_stream)*32)*noise_factor + randn(1,length(bit_stream)*32)*noise_factor*j; % thermal noise in a channel
35
5.8 Channel Estimate As mentioned in section 5.2.1, a training sequence is used to train up the finite impulse estimator response of a simulated channel. This channel estimator uses the LMS adaptive algorithm. An example of this is shown in figure 5.8. With the implementation of the activity detection algorithm, the channel estimate is able to identify the important multipath signals for demodulation in each correlator of the RAKE receiver. The LMS algorithm discussed in chapter 4 is implemented in the simulation, where h represents the channel response and hh represents the channel estimate. The LMS algorithm coding is shown below where y(k) is the output of the channel, yy(k) is the output of the estimator and e(k) is the error signal. The channel estimation error, he(k) is plotted to show the effect of the step size, mu on the convergence rate and stability of the estimation. The LMS adaptive FIR filter system model can be found in figure 4.1. The LMS algorithm formula from equation (4.10) requires the conj function to transform hh and e(k) to its complex conjugate form. The GUI allows a user to choose a step size value from equation (4.11) in the Step 3 edit box to observe the effects of varying this constant in the CDMA system. hh = zeros(1,length(h)); uu = zeros(length(h),1); shift = diag(ones(1,(length(h) - 1)), -1); for k = 1:length(complex_baseband_signal) uu = shift * uu; uu(1) = complex_baseband_signal(k); yy(k) = hh * uu; e(k) = y(k) - yy(k); hh = conj(hh) + mu * (uu.') * conj(e(k)); % LMS algorithm formula (refer to equation (4.10)) he(k) = (h-hh) * (h-hh)'; % asymptotic error =>same operation as (abs(h-hh))^2 end
The algorithm for activity detection discussed in section 4.3 allows the active taps, which are above the activity threshold to be detected as important taps. The coding below suggests that if the activity measure for a particular tap is below the activity threshold, the tap will be assigned a zero value in the channel estimate. A user will be able see the effects of varying the
36
threshold factor in the Step 4 edit box. An increase in the threshold factor leads to a fewer number of active taps being detected. if activity_eqn(tap) > (threshold_factor * var_y * log10(k)) % refer activity_eqn to equation (4.12) active(tap)=1; else active(tap)=0; end % LMS algorithm formula hh(tap) = active(tap) * (conj(hh(tap)) + mu * complex_baseband_signal(k+1-tap) * conj(e(k)));
Figure 5.8 Taps below the activity threshold are detected as zero taps in the channel estimate
37
5.9 RAKE Receiver The respective channel estimate obtained for the three models are used in the demodulation of the transmitted signal. The current RAKE receiver model sorts the channel estimate for selecting the three strongest multipath signals while the detection guided RAKE receiver model is designed to allocate each important multipath signal to a correlator with a maximum of seven correlators. The abs function computes the absolute value on each tap of the channel estimate so that signals that are 180 out of phase can be ranked in terms of signal amplitude with the sort function shown below. sort(abs(hh)); % sort all taps of the channel-estimate impulse response in the descending order
The standard LMS based RAKE receiver does not require any sorting function as it simply assigns a correlator to each of the multipath signal. Each correlator in the RAKE receiver is only able to demodulate effectively when the spreading code is synchronized in accordance to the delay spread of the respective multipath signal. This simulation is based on the assumption that the delay between adjacent taps on the impulse response model corresponds to a value more than the chip interval. The following codes execute the synchronization of the spreading code for each correlator, where m is the tap position of each multipath signal, WcodePN_I/Q_polar is the spreading code, WcodePN_I/Q_polar0 is the synchronized spreading code and hh(m) is the phase/gain adjustor. for m = 1:length(hh) % synchronization of spreading code for I/Q-channel WcodePN_I_polar0 = [(ones(1,(m-1))*-1), WcodePN_I_polar]; WcodePN_Q_polar0 = [(ones(1,(m-1))*-1), WcodePN_Q_polar]; for n = (1:length(input_bit_polar)) correlator_I = real(y(32*(n-1)+1 : 32*n)); % received signal in I-channel rake_I(n) = hh(m) * sum(correlator_I .* WcodePN_I_polar0((32*(n-1)+1):32*n)); % despread correlator_Q = imag(y(32*(n-1)+1 : 32*n)); % received signal in Q-channel rake_Q(n) = hh(m) * sum(correlator_Q .* WcodePN_Q_polar0((32*(n-1)+1):32*n)); % despread rake_output(n) = rake_I(n) + rake_Q(n); % output signal from individual correlator end rake_output_total = rake_output + rake_output_total; % output signal from RAKE receiver end;
38
5.10 Decision Device The analogue output antipodal signal obtained from the RAKE receiver is inputted into a decision device to transform it into a unipolar signal. The sign function assigns a logic 1 if the amplitude level of the corresponding bit is greater than zero and a logic 0 if the amplitude level of the corresponding bit is less than zero. The received output_bit is checked with the input signal for any transmission errors. output_bit = (sign(rake_output_total) + 1) / 2;
The SNR values for the three models are individually calculated based on the output signal strength obtained at the decision device. The results from the simulation showing the transmission errors and SNR performance are used for comparison among the three models and discussed in the next chapter.
Chapter 6 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The detection guided RAKE receiver model is thoroughly tested and simulation results are compared with the current RAKE receiver model and the standard LMS based RAKE receiver model. Several combinations of the design parameters are examined and discussed in the following sections of this chapter. We look at how the detection guided RAKE receiver is able to detect and select the important multipath signals for demodulation, resulting in a better SNR and an overall lower computational cost. In this chapter, we examine and analyse the findings from the simulated results using MATLAB. They are categorized into the following sections: Section 6.1: Effects on increasing the noise factor Section 6.2: Effects on increasing the threshold factor Section 6.3: SNR performance for the three models Section 6.4: Comparison on the asymptotic multipath estimation error
39
Chapter 6 Results and Discussion
40
6.1 Effects on Increasing the Noise Factor In this section, we investigate the effects of increasing the noise factor. A noise factor of value two, eight and nine are inputted to the system. All other design parameters remain unchanged for this section of the finding. It is expected that an increase in the noise factor will lead to a lower SNR performance. This phenomenon is shown in tables 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3, where the SNR performance decreases about 13dB on average between the lowest and highest noise factor values simulated. Furthermore, with the increase in the noise factor, the simulation results show that the current RAKE receiver has a bit error in the signal output (see Figure 6.4) as compared to the other two models (see Figures 6.5 and 6.6). The channel estimates of figures 6.1 and 6.4 show different impulse response due to the effect of noise. The standard LMS based RAKE receiver and the detection guided RAKE receiver utilise more correlators, and consequently both of these models are able to effectively demodulate the transmitted signal without errors. When the noise factor is increased to a value of nine, the standard LMS based RAKE receiver model surface an error bit. The increase noise power to the system has allowed the introduction of smaller multipath signals to interfere with the prominent ones. On the other hand, the detection guided RAKE receiver is able to filter out these unwanted multipath signals through the implementation of the activity detection algorithm. The simulation results show that it is probably not effective and efficient to provide a correlator for each multipath signal. From table 6.1, the detection guided RAKE receiver shows a SNR value of 77.8748dB, which is approximately 4.6dB higher than the SNR for the current RAKE receiver (see Section 6.3). A 3dB improvement in the SNR means that the SNR has doubled. The SNR value for the detection guided RAKE receiver is very similar to the standard LMS based RAKE receiver although it is able to achieve this SNR value with a much smaller number of correlators. In this simulation, the detection guided RAKE receivers performance is (20/5) = 4 times better than the standard LMS based RAKE receiver. The earlier discussions are based on the results achieved from the MATLAB simulation. Graphs and tables are plotted to support the findings for this simulation.
41
6.1.1
Noise Factor = 2.0

DESIGN PARAMETERS
Walsh code row 35
Noise factor 2.0 Number of multipath signals detected Number of
Step size 0.0025 Number of bit errors 0 0 0
Threshold factor 3 Signal-to-noise ratio (dB) 73.2889 77.8604 77.8548
correlators utilised 3 20 5
Current RAKE receiver Standard LMS based RAKE receiver Detection Guided RAKE receiver
3 20 5
Table 6.1 Effects on varying the noise factor to 2.0
Figure 6.1 Simulated results for the current RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 2.0
42
Figure 6.2 Simulated results for the standard LMS based RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 2.0
Figure 6.3 Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and the input verus output bit plot for noise factor = 2.0
43
6.1.2
Noise Factor = 8.0

DESIGN PARAMETERS
Walsh code row 35
3 20 5
44
45
6.1.3
Noise Factor = 9.0

DESIGN PARAMETERS
Walsh code row 35
3 20 5
46
47
6.2 Effects on Increasing the Threshold Factor In this section, we investigate the effects of increasing the threshold factor for the simulations. All other design parameters remain unchanged for this section of the finding. From the activity threshold in equation (4.13), we understand that an increase in the threshold factor leads to the detection of higher activity measures. The simulated results tabulate in tables 6.4 and 6.5 show this phenomenon. The detection guided RAKE receiver with a threshold factor of three detects eight multipath signals as compared the same system using a threshold factor of six and detecting only six multipath signals. Through this experiment, we have found success as the latter simulation has a relatively close SNR value with the former. This shows that the activity detection algorithm has effectively filter out two negligible multipath signals and efficiently lowered the computational cost of the system with the implementation of fewer correlators. The detection guided RAKE receiver in this model has been designed to maximize up to seven correlators in which more correlators would be a waste of resource. This is shown in tables 6.4 and 6.5 that the average SNR difference between the standard LMS based RAKE receiver and the detection guided RAKE receiver is only about 0.3dB, with a maximal use of correlators. The varying of the threshold factor does not have any impact on the current RAKE receiver and the standard LMS based RAKE receiver. However, it is noted that the detection guided RAKE receiver is again able to successfully recovery the original signal whereas the current RAKE has a bit error as shown in figure 6.10. The result of this simulation clearly shows that the threshold factor for the activity detection algorithm plays an important part in the selection of the multipath signals for demodulation. A lower threshold factor may mean the detection of more negligible multipath signals whereas a higher threshold factor may suggest not being able to detect enough multipath signals for proper demodulation.
48
6.2.1
Threshold Factor = 3.0

DESIGN PARAMETERS
Walsh code row 50
Threshold factor 3.0 Signal-to-noise ratio (dB) 70.1999 74.0431 73.8512
3 20 8
Table 6.4 Effects on varying the threshold factor to 3.0
Figure 6.10
Simulated results for the current RAKE receiver on the channel estimate and
the input verus output bit plot for threshold factor = 3.0
49
Figure 6.11
Simulated results for the standard LMS RAKE receiver on the channel
estimate and the input verus output bit plot for threshold factor = 3.0
Figure 6.12
Simulated results for the detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel
estimate and the input verus output bit plot for threshold factor = 3.0
50
6.2.2 Threshold Factor = 6.0

DESIGN PARAMETERS Walsh code row 50 Noise factor 8.0 Number of multipath signals detected Current RAKE receiver Standard LMS based RAKE receiver Detection Guided RAKE receiver 3 20 6 Number of correlators utilised 3 20 6 Step size 0.0025 Threshold factor 6.0 Signal-to-noise ratio (dB) 70.1999 74.0431 73.7033
Number of bit errors 1 0 0
Table 6.5 Effects on varying the threshold factor to 6.0
Figure 6.13
Simulated results for the
Figure 6.14
Simulated results for the
detection guided RAKE receiver on the channel estimate for threshold factor = 6.0
detection guided RAKE receiver on the asymptotic error and active taps detection for threshold factor = 6.0
51
6.3 SNR performance for the Three Models The SNR performance for the three models is plotted and shown in figure 6.15. Each model is simulated for twenty times over an increasing noise factor. The SNR performance for the current RAKE receiver is found to have an average of 4dB lower than the standard LMS based RAKE receiver and the detection guided RAKE receiver. However, the standard LMS based RAKE receiver utilises twenty correlators as compared to detection guided RAKE receiver, which only limits to seven correlators and yet achieving a comparable SNR value.
6.4 Comparison on the Asymptotic Multipath Estimation Error From the theory as discuss in section 4.3, the asymptotic multipath estimation error plot in figure 6.16 shows that the detection guided RAKE receiver has a better asymptotic performance as compared to the standard LMS based RAKE receiver. The plot in figure 6.16 is simulated with a noise factor of 9.0, a threshold factor of 2.0 and a step size factor of 0.0025. As the input noise factor is reasonably high, the asymptotic error for both the receivers are generally higher as well.
~70dB
~66dB
Figure 6.15
SNR
comparison
Figure 6.16
Asymptotic
multipath
among the three models derived
estimation error comparison between the LMS algorithm and the activity detection algorithm
Chapter 7 7. CONCLUSION
The aim of this thesis as mentioned in chapter 1 is to incorporate a new signal detection technique within the RAKE receiver to identify the important multipath signals in the wireless channel. In the course of this thesis, we have developed a simulation using MATLAB. This simulation implements the standard LMS algorithm and the activity detection algorithm in the adaptive process of estimating the channel impulse response. It has found that the detection guided RAKE receiver outperforms the current RAKE receiver and the standard LMS based RAKE receiver. Section 7.1 will summarize this thesis and Section 7.2 will provide some suggestions to any future work in this topic. 7.1 Summary of Findings This thesis presents a simulated CDMA system with the RAKE receiver that is able to function more efficiently and effectively as compared to the current technology. This RAKE receiver incorporates the activity detection algorithm where it involves an activity measure and an activity threshold. A multipath signal whose activity measure is below the threshold is detected as a negligible multipath signal and will not be consider for demodulation. Hence, this algorithm only allows the detection of the important multipath signals depending on a decisive threshold factor. The implementation of the detection guided RAKE receiver has found to perform much better than the current RAKE receiver and the standard LMS based RAKE receiver. The proposed RAKE receiver is able to obtain a better SNR performance than the current RAKE receiver using a minimum number of correlators. The effect of noise in the channel is found to have the least affect to the detection guided RAKE receiver, which makes it less prone to errors.
52
Chapter 7 Conclusion
53
Overall, the detection guided RAKE receiver has shown to achieve a superior performance and more research work should be continued to explore the many more capabilities of this algorithm. 7.2 Suggestions to Possible Future Work The activity detection algorithm has proven its intended function and has shown to be cost effective as well. However, the value of the threshold factor does not have any significant meanings on the amplitude of the multipath signals. This thesis has proposed that multipath signals above the amplitude value given by: 1 log(threshold _ factor ) (7.1)
should be considered as an active multipath signal. This equation (7.1) works well for small threshold factor but fails when the threshold factor is increased to a larger value. Future work should include the computation of this threshold amplitude for the activity detection algorithm to allow a better representation on the selections of the taps.
REFERENCE LIST
[1]
Rappaport, T.S. 2002. Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River. Prasad, R. 1996. CDMA for Wireless Personal Communications. Artech House: Boston. CDMA Development Group. 2002. RAKE Receiver: Another Advantage of CDMA over Other Systems. http://www.cdg.org/tech/abcs/lec1/text/abc_1_3_36.txt [Accessed Oct 14 2002]. Buckley, S. 2000. 3G Wireless: Mobility Scales New Heights. Telecommunications Magazine. GSM World. 2002. Global System for Mobile Communications: GSM World for the GSMAssociation. http://www.gsmworld.com [Accessed Oct 14 2002]. CDMA Development Group. 2002. CDMA Technology: The Drive towards Third Generation (3G) Systems. http://www.cdg.org [Accessed Oct 14 2002]. Stallings, W. 2001. Wireless Communications and Networks. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. Couch, L.W. 2001. Digital and Analog Communication Systems. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River. Blake, R. 1997. Comprehensive Electronics Communication. West: Minneapolis. Widrow, B., & Stearns, S.D. 1985. Adaptive Signal Processing. Prentice Hall: New Jersey. Haykin, S. 2002. Adaptive Filter Theory. Prentice Hall: Eaglewood Cliffs. Homer, J. 1998. A review of the developments in adaptive echo cancellation for telecommunications. Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Australia, 18(2): 149-164. Homer, J., Mareels, I., Bitmead, R.R., Wahlberg, B., & Gustafsson, F. 1998. LMS estimation via structural detection. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 46(10): 2651-2663. Homer, J. 1998. Detection guided LMS estimation of sparse channels. Global Telecommunications Conference, 6:3704-3709.
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[15]
Homer, J., Bitmead, R.R., & Mareels, I. 1998. Quantifying the effects of dimension on the convergence rate of LMS adaptive FIR estimator. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 46 (10): 2611-2615. Homer, J. 2000. Detection guided NLMS estimation of sparsely parametrized channels. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems-II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing, 47(12): 1437-1442. Chapman, S.J. 2002. MATLAB Programming for Engineers. Brooks/Cole: Pacific Grove. Wong, P.H. 2001. Signed LMS Adaptive Filtering with Detection, Undergraduate Thesis, The University of Queensland, School of Information and Technology and Electrical Engineering.
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[18]

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Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Electrical Engineering Thesis

CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver

CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver

Supervisor: Dr. John Homer Oct 2002

Siang Pin Gan

Acknowledgement i Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables Abstract ix vi viii ii

CHAPTER 2: CDMA SYSTEM CONCEPTS

CHAPTER 3: SIGNAL PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 13

CHAPTER 4: ADAPTIVE FILTERS - THE LMS ALGORITHM

CHAPTER 5: MATLAB MODEL

CHAPTER 6: FINDINDS AND DISCUSSION

CDMA Detection Guided RAKE Receiver ModelError! Bookmark not

Chapter 2 2. CDMA SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

Spreading code /PN sequence

De-spreading code /PN sequence

Pseudorandom Noise Generator

Pseudorandom Noise Generator

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

0 Input data m(t) +1

-1 10010111101011010011011010010110001 PN sequence +1 c(t) -1 Tc = chip interval Transmitted signal s(t) +1 10010110010100101100111010011001110

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

Transmitter of the DS-SS system

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

225 135 315 45

Figure 2.4 Constellation diagram for QPSK

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

where the complex envelope

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

Chapter 2 CDMA System Concepts

Distorted Signal s(t)

Delay s1 Spreading Code Phase & Gain Adjustors s1 , s1 Z1

Delay s2 Spreading Code Phase & Gain Adjustors s2 , s2 Z2

Delay s3 Spreading Code Phase & Gain Adjustors s3 , s3 Z3

m(t) Output data

Figure 2.6 An implementation of a RAKE receiver with 3 correlators

Chapter 3 3. SIGNAL PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Chapter 3 Signal Propagation Characteristics For Wireless Communication

reflected wave Figure 3.2 Reflection of a wave

Chapter 3 Signal Propagation Characteristics For Wireless Communication

primary wave secondary wave Figure 3.3 Diffraction of a wave

Figure 3.4 Scattering of waves

Chapter 3 Signal Propagation Characteristics For Wireless Communication

Figure 3.5 Signal strength decays as the path distance increases

Large-scale fading: Signal fades gradually with distance

Small-scale fading: Signal fades rapidly

Figure 3.6 Large-scale and small-scale fading

Chapter 3 Signal Propagation Characteristics For Wireless Communication

Direct Path LOS

Multipath 1 AWGN (Noise)

Figure 3.7 Tapped delay line model of a multipath fading channel

Chapter 4 4. ADAPTIVE FILTERS THE LMS ALGORITHM

Chapter 4 Adaptive Filters - The LMS Algorithm

Noise nn(k) Error signal e(k) = y(k) yy(k) -

y(k) = z(k) + nn(k) +

Chapter 4 Adaptive Filters - The LMS Algorithm

Chapter 4 Adaptive Filters - The LMS Algorithm

Chapter 4 Adaptive Filters - The LMS Algorithm

where y2 is the variance of y(k). y =

Chapter 4 Adaptive Filters - The LMS Algorithm

Chapter 5 5. MATLAB MODEL

Chapter 5 MATLAB Model

% channel impulse response, h h = [0,0,(0.1randn(1,2)),2.1,(0.1randn(1,5)),3.1,(0.1randn(1,5)),-2.5,(0.1randn(1,3))];