COURSE NOTES
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.- INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS 1.1.- MEASURING UNITS 1.2.- NOISE CONCEPTS 1.3.- TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS 1.4.- RLC RESONANT CIRCUITS 2.- ANALOG MODULATION 2.1.- AMPLITUDE MODULATION 2.2.- FREQUENCY MODULATION 3.- DIGITAL MODULATION 3.1.- ASK, FSK, PSK 3.2.- BPSK, QPSK, QAM 4.- DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS 4.1.- THE TELEPHONE NETWORK 4.2.- PCM, ADPCM, ISDN 4.3.- WIDE AREA NETWORKS 4.3.1.- PHYSICAL INTERFACES 4.3.2.- LINK PROTOCOLS 4.3.3.- PDH, SDH 4.4.- INTERNET AND HIGHER LEVEL PROTOCOLS 4.5.- VOICE OVER IP 5.- WIRELESS NETWORKS 5.1.- CELLULAR NETWORKS 5.2.- WI-FI, WI-MAX, 3G 6.- TRANSMISSION LINES 6.1.- SMITH CHART 6.2.- IMPEDANCE MATCHING 7.- ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION 8.- FIBRE OPTICS 9.- COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
1.0.-INTRODUCTION
A typical telecommunication system is described below.
The frequency spectrum is a valuable natural resource of any country. It is highly important to control its use and allocation.
P2 G ( dB ) = 10 * log10 P1
Where P2 is output power and P1 is input power Examples: 1.- Gain of a power amplifier = 2 (1 W input = 2 W output) Gain (dB) = 10 * log 2/1 = 3.01 dB 2.- Attenuation in a network = 1000 (1000 W input = 1 W output) Attenuation (dB) = 10 log 1000/1 = 30 dB Also: Gain (dB) = 10 log 1/1000 = - 30 dB
Pn = kTB watts
Pn = Noise power available on output of a resistor.
k= Boltzmann's constant = B= Bandwidth in Hz. T = Temperature in Kelvin
1,38 * 10 23
Example: For B= 4 MHz and ambient temperature of 290 K (17 C) we obtain Pn = 1,6 * 10 14 W. = -108 dBm. It appears in all telecommunication systems. The quality of an amplifier depends much on how to minimize noise.
PL
(Vn / 2)2 =
RL
2
V V = n = n 4 RL 4 R
V / R Vs Vs S / N = s2 = 2 = 4kTBR Vn / R Vn
F=
G=
F=
Pno GPni
Pni = kTB
Therefore: P = FGkTB . This is equivalent to having an ideal amplifier (no noise) of no Gain = G, with an input noise of :
It is useful to consider them as ideal (no noise) and calculate the total noise of the chain at the input. For two amplifiers in series of gains G1 and G2 with noise factors F1 and F2: Noise at input:
Pni = kTB
kTB + ( F1 1)kTB = F1kTB
Total noise at input due to first amplifier: = Noise at input of second amplifier:=
G1 F1kTB + ( F2 1) kTB
Noise at the output of second amplifier: The noise factor of the chain is:
F=
F = F1 +
F2 1 F3 1 + + ... G1 G1G2
NOTE: G and F are absolute values (no unit of measure). When these values are stated in dB, it is necessary to convert them to its absolute value, in order to apply Friiss formula.
( F 1) kTB .
kTe B = ( F1 1)kTB
And the Equivalent Temperature is: The Friiss formula becomes:
Te = ( F1 1)T
Te = Te1 +
Te 2 T + e 3 + ... G1 G1G2
10
Any periodic signal may be generated as the addition of sine waves of higher frequency, harmonics of the original periodic signal. This was demonstrated by Fourier, using the Fourier series.
11 We use oscilloscopes to display signals in the Time domain and Spectrum Analyzers to visualize them in the frequency domain.
Z = R2 + ( X L X C )2
fr =
1 2 LC
The Bandwidth of the resonant circuit is defined as the frequency range delimited by the impedance being
We obtain:
R B= 2L
Also:
fr B= Qr
12
In this case the bandwidth is obtained when the impedance of the circuit is
1 2
fr B= Qr
Also:
Qr =
XL R
13
f (t ) = Ac cos( 2f c t + )
suffix c carrier wave Ac carrier amplitude fc carrier frequency (Hz) phase angle of carrier at t = 0 if latter 3 remain constant - no information will consider amplitude or frequency changing A modulating signal m(t) will modify the amplitude of the carrier so that the modulated signal becomes:
f am (t ) = Ac (1 + m(t )) cos( 2f c t + )
If m(t) is sinusoidal:
m(t ) = m cos(2f m t )
so that:
f am (t ) = Ac (1 + m cos( 2f mt )) cos( 2f c t + )
Where m= Modulation Index The resultant signal, with = 0, after filtering with a low-pass filter, becomes:
f am (t ) = Ac cos( 2f ct ) +
14
A2 p m2 (1 + ) Pc = 2 2
The noise power at the input is:
N in = N 0 Bif = 2 N 0 f m
If we call
A2 p C= 2
C (1 + m 2 / 2) [ S / N ]in = 2N 0 f m
If the demodulation is done with an envelope detector the S/N ratio on output is:
[ S / N ]out
2m 2 [ S / N ]in = 2 2+m
15
2m 2 Where = 2 + m2
AM GENERATION: A simple AM modulator can be manufactured by placing the sources of carrier and modulating signal in series. The amplified signal is passed on to a resonant circuit tuned at the frequency of the carrier.
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HETERODINING
SUPERHETERODINING
17
f i = f c + K f m(t ) Kf
is the proportionality constant and
f c is the
m(t ) = cos(2f m t )
it becomes easier.
We define:
f fm
The bandwidth of the modulated signal (according to the Carson rule) is:
Bif = 2 f m ( + 1)
Bif = 2( f m + f )
If If
is low (<0.5) we obtain Short Band FM and then : is high (>> 1) we obtain Large Band FM and then:
Bif 2 f m Bif 2f )
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Bif
band is:
[ S / N ]in =
C N 0 Bif
[ S / N ]in =
C 2 N 0 f m (1 + )
Supposing a carrier power much larger than the noise power, the S/N ratio on output is obtained to be:
= 3 2 (1 + ) =
[ S / N ]out [ S / N ]in
Therefore we have advantages if we operate with a bandwidth as large as possible. In commercial FM we have the following band allocation:
FM has better performance against noise than AM since the spurious noise related to amplitude changes become eliminated by a limiter circuit.
19
THRESHOLD EFFECT
One problem is the fading problem that occurs when the carrier power is not mauch larger than the noise. There is a threshold under which the signal degrades rapidly. This occurs around 10 dB S/N ratio on input.
One way of improving the quality of FM in high frequencies is by introducing a high-pass filter before modulation also called Preemphasis and a low-pass filter after demodulation also called Deemphasis. Where high frequency signals are amplified on transmission and attenuated on reception.
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The filter circuits that create preemphasis and deemphasis are as follows:
22
FM DISCRIMINATOR.-
23
PHASE LOCK LOOP.- The phase lock loop is a feed-back circuit that locks the frequency at a fixed value.
SYNTHESIZER.- Using a PLL very precise frequency generators can be constructed. The device is called a synthesizer since the frequencies are generated in a digital fashion.
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BPSK IMPLEMENTATION
BPSK DEMODULATOR
25
3.- DIGITAL MODULATION.ASK turns one bit into a different amplitude of the carrier. FSK turns one bit into a different frequency of the carrier. PSK turns one bit into a different phase of the carrier.
26 FSK TRANSMITTER.- A typical asynchronous modem of the type Bell 202 employs FSK as modulation scheme. Speeds of 1,200 bps could be obtained (from the 1970s).
27
QPSK MODULATION
In QPSK each symbol represents two bits. The symbol is encoded as a fixed amplitude with a particular phase. It is possible to say: PHASE: = + 45 = 00
= +135 = 10 = +225 = 11 = - 45 = 01
QPSK MODULATOR (I & Q SIGNALS).- Differential QPSK is also called I&Q modulation.
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29
In all cases sampling of the analog signal is required. In the case of the following PAM signal we are sampling at the rate of 11 samples every 3 Hz. If the analog signal is 3000 Hz, the sampling rate is 11,000 samples/sec.
In the following case we use four levels with two bits per sample.
30 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION.- The process of sampling is carried out with a DAC (Analog to Digital converter)
NYQUIST SAMPLING THEOREM.- Nyquist elaborated a theorem whereby it is possible to recover fully an analog signal as long as the speed of sampling is at least twice the bandwidth of the original analog signal . In the case of an analog voice channel (4,000 Hz bandwidth) the minimum sampling rate required is:
f s = 2 B = 8,000
samples/s
PCM.- PULSE CODE MODULATION In PCM the voice channel is sampled at the rate of 8,000 samples per second, 8 bits per sample. Therefore a total of 256 levels are available. 128 are positive and 128 are negative. The output data rate of a PCM codec is 64 Kbps.
COMPANDING Low voltage signals are often more common in telephony than high voltage signals. In order to improve the quality of the system the CODEC contains a Compander (Compressor and Decompressor) that provides more samples to the low-voltage signals. Companding is actually implemented with a non-linear filter of logarithmic shape. In Europe the scheme is referred as A-law, while in North America is called -law
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QUANTIZATION ERROR Digital modulation of analog signals introduce a quantization error as shown in the following figure.
If the maximum amplitude of the signal is +20 volts and there are 128 levels, each level amounts to 125 mV. We shall call the "sample voltage" = s. The average quantization error is:
1 i s2 2 e = (m mi ) dm = 12 s mi s / 2
2
m +s / 2
m 2 (t ) e 2 (t )
The maximum value is Ms/2, with M= number of quantization levels.
signal ( Ms / 2) 2 = 2 = 3M 2 noise s / 12
It is often expressed in dB: [S/N]dB = 4,8 + 20 logM = 4,8 + 6m We see that if we increase the number of bits per sample from m to m+1 the S/N ratio improves by 6 dB.
DELTA MODULATION
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SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION FREQUENCY HOPPING SYSTEM.- The frequency hopping sequence is generated with a pseudo-random generators. The signal looks as if it were noise to other receivers.
DIRECT SEQUENCE .- DSS.- Instead of frequencies, the DSS spread spectrum scheme generates codes of higher data rate that are added to the information stream of data. The scrambling codes are also generated by a pseudo-random generator, with a sequence only known to receiver and transmitter. Only one carrier frequency exists but the bandwidth of the resulting modulated signal is far greater than the band of the information data rate. On reception, the reverse procedure takes place.
34
DIGITAL LINE CODES To study only: NRZ-L (Non- Return to Zero L), RZ-Bipolar, RZ-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion), Differential Manchester
35
ERROR RATE PERFORMANCE OF DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES. By statistical analysis it is possible to calculate the error probability of the different digital modulation schemes, which is a function of the ratio
Eb / N 0
where: in Watts/Hz
Eb ) N0
Eb / N 0 is with the
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Eb C = N0 N0D
EXAMPLE: A satellite link working at the frequency of 7.3 GHz has
(a1)
where C is the received signal power and D is the data rate in bits per second.
C N0
coherent demodulation. The desired bit error rate is Pb = 10 5 . According to the graph, we should maintain Eb / N 0 >12,6 dB. Applying the expression (a1) above, we obtain: D= 870 Kbps. NOTE: The expression (a1) above is calculated in absolute values. Any dB values have to be converted to absolute values in order to reach the right answer.
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4.- WANS AND DIGITAL NETWORKS See Power Point Presentation for this chapter.
4.5.- VOICE OVER IP. See Power Point Presentation for this chapter.
5.- WIRELESS NETWORKS. See Power Point Presentation for this chapter.
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6.1.- CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE of a line Zo.Characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the input impedance when the line is infinite. There are no reflections. It is a function of the physical properties of the particular line. The line can be mathematically simulated with a series of distributed inductors L/2 and capacitors C : We obtain:
Z0 =
L C
For a coaxial cable of type RG-8 we have: C= 100 nF/m; L = 250 H/m
Z0 =
L = 50 C
REFLEXION FACTOR
.- Is the ratio of the maximum amplitudes of the reflected wave and the incident wave.
=
Where If
Vref Vinc
Z L Z0 Z L + Z0
Z L = Load impedance
then
and
Z 0 = Characteristic Impedance.
ZL = Z0
=0
(no reflexion)
VSWR =
+1 Z0 = 1 ZL
39
Prefl = 2 * Pinc =
Vrefl RL
THE SMITH CHART.- This is a practical chart that helps to avoid complex calculations
when dealing with transmission line impedances. The impedance at each point is calculated as follows:
( z ) =
If we convert:
Z in ( z ) Z 0 Z in ( z ) + Z 0
= * e j
we obtain:
Z in =
Z in is obtained by the intersection of the circles X in = const. with the circles Rin =
const. which forms the basis of the Smith chart.
40
/4
When the load is purely resistive and not equal to the characteristic impedance
Z L = RL Z 0 , a popular way of matching impedances is by adding, just before the load, a portion of a line of length /4.
In this case
Z 01 = Z 0 * RL
41
Z 01 = 75 * 200 = 122.5
The length of the new segment is
/4.
, we wish to adjust the load with a "short-circuit stub". This is a short piece of line whose length can be changed and is applied in parallel to the transmission line. In this case no cutting of the original line occurs. All measurements are done with admittances. (not impedances)
PROCEDURE: 1.- Trace a circle with centre at 2.- Start at the point
3.- USE OF VSWR AND STUBS. Exercice : If VSWR = 2 and Vmin = 0.125
Z =1
G=2
(Vminimum).
3.- Find the point intersecting the circle: The distance obtained is:
G =1
Yin = 1 j 0.7
admittance of +j0.7 in order to reach the matching point. This we do with the short-circuit stub. 5.- We calculate the length of the stub by displacement : The stub is short-circuited. O ohm resistance = admittance. So we start from (right side) of the chart. The admittance we want is 0 + j0.7. Therefore we move 0.25 (half a circle) then we add + j0.7 . From this point we trace a straight line passing by the centre of the chart and we measure the distance.
42
43
P = Pi Gt =
For a receiving antenna, with an effective area antenna to the load is:
Aeff
P = PAeff =
Aeff
For all antennas we have:
Pt Gt Aeff 2 4d
2 = G 4
Gr we have:
2 Pr = Gt Gr ( ) Pt 4d
Which is the fundamental propagation equation in vacuum. If the frequency f is expressed in MHz and the distance in Km, we obtain:
44
Pr 0.57 *10 3 = Gt Gr Pt ( df ) 2
Converting in dB we obtain:
Always with f in MHz and d in Km. This last term, named L, is called the propagation loss.
Pr ) dB = (Gt ) dB + (Gr ) dB ( L) dB Pt
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
where n1 and n2 are the refraction indexes of the two media.
45
DIFFRACTION.- When an electromagnetic wave passes near a sharp obstacle, the wave does not continue in straight line, but rather it curbs. This effect allows for reception beyond the straight line of vision. The effect is stronger for HF spectrum than for higher frequencies. Reason why land mobile communications in mountainous terrain is preferable in the HF band.
INTERFERENCE.- Two waves leaving the same antenna may reach a point where both are in reverse phase. This may occur when one of the waves has been reflected by an obstacle (the ground for instance). In that case the received signal may be completely lost (opposite phase) .
MAXIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN ANTENNAS.- Considering diffraction of the earth curvature, a standard extended earth radius is 4/3 of the real radius. The maximum line of "diffracted vision" of an antenna of height
ht
is:
d t = 4 ht
ht
where
dt is the
d = 4 ht + 4 hr
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7.3.- MICROWAVE and OTHER RADIO LINKS TERRAIN TOPOGRAPHY.- When selecting an antenna site for a base station or
microwave tower the following aspects have to be considered: Altitude over sea level Vegetation Reflective zones Obstructions
Refraction of the earth surface is taken into consideration. We use the concept of effective earth radius which is 4/3 time the real radius. Reflections: The receiving antenna may receive multiple reflections of the main beam, causing lobes of reception, where at certain antenna heights the signal fades substantially. It is important to adjust the height of the microwave antenna in order to avoid the nulls of the reflective lobes. Attenuation due to rain, fog, snow.- Attenuation due to rain depends on the shape of the raindrops. For frequencies under 8 GHz it is insignificant. Above 8 GHz it should be considered. One way of fighting attenuation is to increase the fading marging. Link Reliability.- It is measured in %. It is defined as the number of outage hours per year. Often we use tables applicable to Rayleigh fading as follows: REQUIRED RELIABILITY % 90 % 99 % 99.9 % 99.99 % 99.999 % FADING MARGIN dB 8 dB 18 dB 28 dB 38 dB 48 dB
For intermediary values interpolation can safely be used. Diversity.- In order to increase the reliability of the link, two types of diversity are used: Space Diversity.- One transmitter is used but two receivers (and two antennas) are used. Both signals are combined after reception to produce the one with best quality. Useful in mobile radio systems when the terrain is mountainous and prone to cause reflections. Frequency Diversity.- The same signal is transmitted with two separate radios and antennas. The signal is received with two separate receivers and antennas. It is more effective than Space Diversity but far more expensive. Used mainly in the military.
47 Interference.- Every antenna that functions as a relay station must regenerate the signal with a new set of frequencies in order to avoid interference with the adjacent link. A multitude of interference signals exist outside the ones used by the operator. It is imperative to employ a strict control of the radio spectrum in the country in order to avoid interference. Polarisation.- An electromagnetic signal may be polarised depending of the position of the electric field E. If it is horizontal polarisation the E field is horizontal to the earth surface. If vertically polarized, the E filed is vertical to the earth surface. This is used in microwave signals to transmit two beams of the same carrier which are independent from each other (orthogonal)
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7.4.- ANTENNAS
An Isotropic Radiator i is a radiator which radiates the same amount of power in all directions. It is a purely hypothetical radiator!!!!
Radiation Intensity:
U0 =
P 4
A typical parallel-plate capacitor is shown in figure (a), where it is connected to a D.C. voltage supply (represented by an E inside of a circle). A voltage applied to two plates produces an electric field between the plates The electric field lines are shown by arrows pointing from the positively charged plate (+) to the negatively charged plate (). Figures (b) and (c) show the change in electric field lines due to a change in the orientation of the capacitors plates.
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As an extension of the capacitor's behaviour we can see how a dipole antenna operates. The /2 (half wave) dipole antenna is very similar to the open capacitor. Shown in Figure a, the /2 dipole has two conductive plates. Changing the polarity (alternating current) we note the change in the direction of the electric field lines. As this sequence of alternating voltages continues, an alternating electric field loop detaches from the antenna, and radiates outward.
Radiation Pattern is defined as the variation of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of direction (at a distance far from the antenna).
half wave
50
Since the Radiation Intensity U is independent of the distance of observations but only depends upon antenna inherent parameters, it can be taken to describe the Radiation Pattern of an Antenna
0 330 30
60 300
0.1
270
0.2
0.3
0.5
1
90
3 dB
240 120
210 180
150
Beamwidth is the angle defined by the 3 dB points of power loss of the strongest lobe. For the dipole antenna of the figure BW= 60
g=
U U = 4 U0 P
Hertzian Dipole
g ( ) = 1.5 sin 2
51
e=
P P = Pinput P + PLoss
G=
U U 0, input
= 4
U Pinput
Gmax = 4
U max Pinput
e=
G Gmax = g D
The Effective Area Ae characterises the antennas ability to absorb the incident power density w and to deliver it to the load. (Receiving Antenna!)
Pload Ae = w
Ae 2 = GM 4
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YAGI-UDDA ANTENNA.- Antenna of low cost and medium gain. It s composed of the
following elements:
dipole.
Reflectors.- Longer than the active element, separated form the active element by
a distance of
the opposite direction. Its length is approximately 0.55 . Director Shorter than the active element, separated form the active element by a
distance of
53
PARABOLIC ANTENNA.Used in UHF and higher bands. The physical area of the antenna with diameter D is: 2
D
4
G = I ( ) * (
*D )
G = 6( )
BW3dB
70 = D
The width of the beam between two consecutive zeroes of the pattern for the main beam is exactly double. (see Figure of Antenna Pattern)
BWzeroes =
140 D
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55 ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION OF ATMOSPHERE DUE TO FOG AND RAIN The figure to the right indicates that at frequencies below 15 GHz attenuation due to rain is still far lower than at frequencies in the optical range,
GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES. occupy fixed position with respect to earth above the equator - no tracking required 3 satellites provide coverage for most of earth's surface (not polar regions)
LINK BUDGET
56
PR
dBW
= PT
dBW
+GT
dB
+G R
dB
20 log(
4R
) L dB
EXERCICE.- Calculate the power that must be transmitted from a geostationary satellite to give a power of -116dBW ( 2.5 *10 W) at a receiver on the earth. Assume f=10 GHz, Gr = 40 dB = Gt = 30 dB and additional losses of 5 dB. R = altitude = 36,0000 Km. SOLUTION.- We obtain: Therefore:
21
116 = PT + 30 + 40 203 5
dBW
PT
= 22 dBW = 159 W.