Overview

Green Manufacturing

Environmentally Benign Manufacturing: Current Practice and Future Trends

Delcie R. Durham
Authors Note: The opinions expressed are those of the author only. The National Science Foundation takes no position on this matter.

The consideration of environmental issues in manufacturing has taken on increased importance in terms of global competitiveness. Life-cycle assessment tools enable analysis of the environmental efficiency of industrial processes. Often these focus on the product, with standardized or customized data provided on current processing practice. Environmental management of the total materials cycle must provide tools to evaluate the effect of changes in processing or material substitutions on a global basis, where materials use, reuse, component remanufacture, and materials recycling can be considered and the overall costs and impacts assessed. In this article, two examples of net-shape processing are discussed from this total materials cycle perspective. INTRODUCTION Environmentally benign manufacturing (EBM) involves the technologies, operational practices, analytical methExtraction Natural Environment Production Wastes

ods, and strategies for sustainable production within the industrial ecology framework. Environmentally benign manufacturing specifically addresses the development and implementation of benign materials processing to meet the challenges of sustainable materials flows in a use and reuse environment with a goal of zero waste. It also addresses remanufacturing, reuse, and recycling in a total environmental management context. The recent World Technologies Evaluation Center (WTEC) study of EBM1 found that while the focus of Europe, Japan, and the United States in addressing environmental impacts of industry was very different, the desired outcomes were common. Upon analyzing the information gathered from 52 site visits, the consensus of the panel was that a systems approach to materials and processing that considers a comprehensive life cycle is necessary for evaluating design decisions that promote reduced environmental impact. Specifically, any manufacturing environmental impact must be assessed

Raw Materials, Commodities

Consumption Wastes

Waste Recycling

By-Product, Home Scrap

Production Processes

Remanufacturing, Reconditioning Final Products Distribution of Final Goods

Productive Capital Machines Structures Land Inventory

Accumulation of Capital Goods

Figure 1. A box scheme for an industrial material cycle.2

at the global as well as the local scale. The industrial materials cycle captures the flow of materials from the natural environment through the manufacturing and use components of a product life cycle, accounting for remanufacturing, recycling, and disposal back to the environment, as suggested by Ayres schematic shown in Figure 1.2 A subset of the industrial material cycle is the product development life cycle presented by Richards and Frosch3 and shown in Figure 2. The focus of this analysis is on the product development stage, which is useful in capturing the various aspects of materials acquisition, processing, product maintenance, reuse/recycling options, and other manufacturing considerations, such as packaging. While the connectivity of these different aspects of materials and manufacturing is represented in a simplified fashion, the framework does capture issues that must be addressed when assessing the effect of alternatives to current manufacturing practices. The framework is also useful in identifying the low-hanging fruit in terms of lowering environmental impact of the current practice. A number of industries have developed methods to flesh out similar frameworks with matrix methods or databases organized to assess their products and processes. The WTEC EBM report and subsequent papers by the panel led by Gutowski4,5 provide specific information obtained from a number of these industries, including those that produce metals or use metals in their products. Hoogovens Steel Environmental Report 19986 includes a schematic of the steelmaking process that indicates that for 12,582,000 tonnes of raw materials (coal and iron ore), an output of 5,843,000 tonnes of end products such as coiled
JOM May 2002

34

Recycling and Disposal Product Development and Design

Acquisition of Raw Materials, Components, and Sub-Assemblies

Product Use

Product Packaging and Distribution

Product Manufacture Figure 2. A life cycle analysis.3

processing technologies and systematic approaches to production planning could have beneficial effects in reducing the generation of wastes. However, a full environmental management evaluation is necessary to determine whether local benefits translate to benefits on a more global level. CURRENT RESEARCH AND FUTURE CONNECTIVITY: A NET-SHAPE CAST COMPONENT EXAMPLE Over the past seven years, advances have been made by academic and industrial researchers, first in environmentally conscious manufacturing, then in technologies for a sustainable environment, and currently in environmentally benign manufacturing. This research has focused on the processes and technologies or on the systems and economics. A quick survey of the public National Science Foundation awards database 10 provides information on research projects conducted at a number of institutions. Consideration of the environmental impact of a net-shape cast component, as an example, provides a possible mapping of the needed connectivity for EBM decision-making. Such a mapping could start with of the Product Manufacture segment of Figure 2. A typical method of evaluating the process would be an input/output assessment with the evaluation limited to the process. Research has been conducted on the fundamental understanding of the casting process, in both expendable molds and permanent molds such as die casting. Goals of the research have included the ability to model the process for predicative capabilityto improve yield, reduce development time, e d ln pO RT and eliminate or n O = defects, O control 16F 2 ( and ) do this in to dx O + e closer-to-net-shape configurations. The economic underpinnings of this work have been to improve process efficiency and reduce waste, which is not new to industry or academic researchers. Numerous examples of metallurgical and process modifications, modeling and simulation techniques, and design for manufacturability projects can be found among the awards. In increasing the focus to include environmental issues, process information on the amount and type of waste produced,
2 2 2 2

product is realized. The report includes information on the environmental management system, currently adapted to meet the International Organization for Standardization 14001 standard. Their planning included 64 measures to assess the improvement and achievement of the defined environmental goals. Hoogovens makes the case that product-oriented environmental management enables systematic attention to environmental aspects of products so that the production process as well as the environmental effects of raw materials extraction, transport, product use, and waste recycling are all considered. While Hoogovens focuses on the production of steel coils, slabs, and bars, other industries such as Caterpillar and General Motors transform steel and other materials into vehicles and other products. The auto industry7 estimates that 61% (860 kg/vehicle) of the waste generated in the production of a vehicle is engineered scrap from the transformation of stock metal by net-shape processes. Figure 3 presents Caterpillars analysis of the efficiency of the materials transformation for its products.8 The schematic represents only the solid metal for these processes and estimates that almost 10 percent of the primary metal is converted to waste as chips and trimmings. This schematic does not address the use of water or energy, or the generation of other wastes such as solvents and cutting fluids. While the transformation from coil to product represents a large segment of net-shape manufacturing, other aspects of the material cycle, such as ore extraction, production of stock metals from ore and scrap, and product reuse/recycle, are necessary to complete the life-cycle analysis. For environmental impact, input/output models such as those shown in Figure 1 focus on metrics
2002 May JOM

weighted by experience and based upon current practice and bulk or averaging evaluation methods. Because these models are designed for conducting a budget analysis on an input/output basis, evaluating the effect of a local change within a segment can present difficulties. For material transformations, the full details on internal couplings of materials, machines, and processes are often inaccessible. Lead-free solders provide an interesting example. Knowledge is needed regarding appropriate material substitutes, but this goes beyond the question of the ability of the material to conduct current in a circuit. Second-level considerations include the long-term performance characteristics of the solder, the flow behavior of the solder in current packaging processes, and the effect of process-temperature requirements on the whole electronic package, including the other components. Third-tier considerations include the manufacture of the solder itself, potential degradation of aging inventories, distribution and education regarding use, ability to recover and recycle components after use, and poisoning of metal waste streams by solder-alloy constituents. Fourthlevel considerations include effects of the added demand for the alternative materials, both in pricing and in processing, on mining or recycling paths, basic metal processing from ores, and added capital equipment to identify, separate, and recover various constituents. In effect, this connectivity between the local change in solder material to the total materials cycle is a demonstration of some of the information and assessment that needs to occur in applying Figure 1 to the material substitution for lead-free solder. Local considerations are not sufficient in decision-making. Improvements in

35

Figure 3. The metal transformation to product at Caterpillar.8

the resources needed in addition to the primary metal, and the efficiency of materials use during that process need to be addressed. The complexity of the near-net-shape casting of a ferrous material suddenly increases while still looking at the first-tier considerations. Primary metal is only one input to the process. Energy, any inoculant materials for structure or composition control, and mold materials are additional inputs. Outputs to be considered in addition to the as-cast product included released thermal energy from the melting, pouring and solidifying steps, gases generated during the melting and solidification process, solid waste (primary) generated by gating and risering systems, and any misflows, mold materials, and slags. This captures the casting process on a local basis and could be used to evaluate effects of changing melting practices, process control, mold material substitutions, and other process-related modifications on the output. Research conducted by Groza et al. on binders,11 Cannon et al. on outgassing control,12 and work by Schlesinger et al. on slag systems13, has been directed toward reducing the environmental impact while maintaining economic viability. For this model, metrics on the input materials are assumed to be provided by the metal supplier, determined from another assessment box associated with the primary iron or steel production process. Hoogovens6 64 metrics are representative of the planning necessary to define and measure this aspect of the primary processing. Research such as that conducted by Pal et al.14
36

into improvements in ferrous metals production through a better understanding and control of the chemistry and by Murray15 in the investigation of direct solar heating in aluminum production can lead to lowering the environmental impact and life-cycle costs of the primary processing. In terms of the mapping, this can translate to reduced input impacts/costs to the net-shape processing evaluation. Post-processing requirements for the casting also need to be considered as the assessment envelope is drawn larger. Castings typically require additional operations, including grinding, cleaning, and some surface finishing. Inputs and outputs now include the energy required for these processes, and metrics on the particulate (airborne) and solid waste produced. Research into new cleaning operations such as plasma scrubbing by Dahlis research group16 or nonthermal plasmas being investigated by Korfiatis et al.17 can lead to reducing solvent loads typical of these processes. Moving from casting to final component, machining steps such as facing, drilling, and boring often are required to prepare the component for assembly. These operations require their own processing input/output assessment, where tooling, energy, chips and particulate waste, cutting fluid use and recovery, and thermal energy losses need to be considered. Several researchers have investigated means of eliminating or controlling the use of toxic cutting fluids. Komanduri18 and Malshe19 are among those searching for new coatings for cutting tools so that the cutting

fluid can be eliminated. Manke and Gulari,20 Sutherland,21 and Hong22 have been investigating means to control or introduce substitute fluids into the process. It is obvious that this evaluation process can quickly become unwieldy and the total material cycle has not yet been completed for this single, nearnet-shape cast component. To contend with this complexity, industries lean toward adopting matrix methods and families of similar products to evaluate the overall impact of their production systems. Allenby 9 has presented a well-documented case study of the AT&T matrix approach. Research efforts continue to develop systematic approaches to the product/process lifecycle assessment, either to improve the efficiency of the comprehensive approach, or to provide means of more readily assessing the effect of a change within the system. Isaacs and her colleagues23 address the materials segment of the product development lifecycle in Figure 2, conducting an economic analysis of the effect of selecting a new alloy steel for automotive use. Thurston24 takes a systematic approach to the product manufacture segment, searching for means of incorporating the processing and quality concerns into a design methodology. Stuart and her research group25 have been developing a model for repair/recycling capabilities where inventory management and economic viability play a key role in decision-making for the metals industries. Bras26 has formed several collaborations with United States and international researchers to advance the fundamental understanding of performance monitoring that includes economic and environmental issues through activities-based accounting methods, addressing the core product development and design component with the use cycle. These various research activities are advancing the knowledge base in environmentally benign processes and systems for the metals and near-net-shape casting processes. Establishing direct methods relating connectivity of information at the different levels of analysis with the overall environmental impact remains a challenge, however. Current activities at the National Science Foundation are
JOM May 2002

designed to fill this gap in connecting the manufacturing processes, systems, and design of products. PREMISE (NSF 02-053)27 is a current solicitation aimed at supporting interdisciplinary teams working on these complex manufacturing issues. CONCLUSIONS Manufacturing research into processing technologies and systems analysis must include evaluation of the environmental and energy impacts, as well as the economic considerations. In order to assess process or systems modifications in terms of their impact on resource use and waste generation, an analysis at the global level must accompany the typical local evaluation. The need to conduct this assessment on several levels induces system complexity. Current models and methods either simplify, provide bulk assessment of events, or serve in a reductionist fashion, providing decision-makers with limited information. Several examples have been provided demonstrating the need to connect the industrial materials cycle in Figure 1 and the product development life cycle in Figure 2 in order to gain better understanding of what information is needed for decision-making support. Additional research is needed to filter the information overload regarding the environmental/economic complexity in order to make viable decisions regarding manufacturing.

References
1. WTEC Panel Report on Environmentally Benign Manufacturing, Panel Chair T. Gutowski, International Technology Research Institute, World Technology Division (Baltimore, MD: WTEC, 2001). 2. R. Ayres, Industrial Metabolism: Theory and Policy, The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems, ed. B.R. Allenby and D.J. Richards (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Engineering, 1994), pp. 2337. 3. D.J. Richards and R.A. Frosch, The Industrial Green Game, ed. D.J. Richards (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Engineering, 1997), pp. 136. 4. D. Thurston et al., U.S. National Science Foundation Panel Report on International Environmentally Benign Design and Manufacturing, Int. Conf. Engrg. Design 01 (Glasgow, Scotland: ICED, 2001). 5. D. Allen et al., Environmentally Benign Manufacturing: Trends in Europe, Japan, and the USA, ASME Design Engrg. Tech. Conf. (New York: ASME, 2001). 6. Hoogovens Steel Environmental Report 1998 (Ijmuiden, Netherlands: Hoogovens Steel, 1998). 7. J.D. Rogers, Green Manufacturing: An Automotive Perspective, Green Manufacturing PanelNational Manufacturing Week (Chicago, IL: 2000). 8. E. Wolff (Paper presented at NSF Conference, Arlington, VA Sept 12, 2001). 9. B. Allenby, Industrial Ecology: Policy Framework and Implementation (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999), pp. 229246. 10. National Science Foundation awards database, www.nsf.gov/home/grants/grants_awards.htm. 11. I. Thussen, J. Groza, D. Sumner and I. Montanez, Synthesis of an Emission Free Binder for the Sand Casting Industry. 1999 NSF Design & Manufacturing Grantees Conference, Long Beach, CA Jan. 58, 1999. 12. R.C.Voigt, F.S. Cannon, J.C. Furness, Novel Advanced Oxidation for Diminishing Air Emissions and Green Sand Use in Foundries. (Paper presented at the American Foundry Society Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, April 810, 2000). 13. M.D. Crites et al., Refractory Interactions with Calcium Ferrite Slags, Interceram, 44 (2000), p. 88. 14. U.B. Pal et al., Enhancing Electrochemical Reactions in Smelting and Refining Operations, 2001 Electric Furnace Conf. Proc. (Warrendale, PA: ISS, 2001), pp. 323336. 15. J.P. Murray, Solar Production of Aluminum by Direct Reduction: Preliminary Results for Two Processes, J. Solar Energy Engrg., 123 (2001), p. 125.

16. S.K. Dhali, S. Seethamsetty, B. Dave, A Wet Plasma Scrubber for Removal of Sulfur Dioxide, Bulletin of the American Physical Society, V. 26, 2001, p.34. 17. G. Korfiatis et al., Investigation of a Novel Capillary Non-Thermal Ambient Pressure Plasma for Al Surface Cleaning, 2001 DMII Grantees and Research Conf. (Tampa, FL, Jan. 710, 2001). 18. F. Kustas, L. Fehrenbacher, and R. Komanduri, Nanocoatings on Cutting Tools for Dry Machining, Annals of CIRP, 46 (1997), p. 39. 19. W.C. Russell et al., Novel cBN:TiN Composite Coating Deposition Methods: Structure and Performance in Metal Cutting, Proc of 15th Int. Plansee Seminar (Tyrol, Austria; Plansee Holding AG, 2001), V. 2, p. 754. 20. R. Marano et al., Polymer Additives as Mist Suppressants in Metal Cutting Fluids, Lubrication Engrg., 53 (1997), pp. 2536. 21. C. Daniel, W. Olson, and J. Sutherland, Research Advances in Dry and Semi-Dry Machining, J. Mater. and Manuf., 106 (1997), p. 373. 22. S. Hong, Y. Ding, and R. Ekkens., Improving Low Carbon Steel Chip Brakability by Cryogenic Chip Cooling, Int. J. Machine Tools and Manufacture, 39 (1999), p. 1065. 23. R. Roth et al., Economic Analysis of the Ultra Light Steel Auto Body, SAE 982399, IBEC01 Vo 5 (Warrendale, PA: SAE, 1998). 24. D.L. Thurston, Engineering Economic Decision Issues in Environmentally Conscious Design, The Engineering Economist, V. 44, No. 1, 1999. 25. J. Qiao and J.A. Stuart, A Stochastic Process Model and Inventory Management Policies for a Repair/Recycling Center, INFORMS (San Antonio, TX, 7 November 2000). 26. B. Bras et al., Real-time Integrated Economic and Environmental Performance Monitoring of a Production Facility, 2001 Proc. SAE SP-1579 Environmental Issues in Vehicle Design and Manufacturing (Warrendale, PA: SAE, 2001) Delcie R. Durham is program director of materials processing and manufacturing at the National Science Foundation. For more information, contact D.R. Durhan, National Science Foundation, Division of Design, Manufacture and Industrial Innovation, Room 550, 4201 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22230; (703) 292-7060; fax (703) 292-9056; e-mail ddurham@nsf.gov.

JOM, 184 THORN HILL ROAD, WARRENDALE, PA 15086

TO SUBSCRIBE, PRINT OR ELECTRONIC:

Telephone: 1-800-759-4867 within the U.S. (724) 776-9000 ext. 270 E-mail: publications@tms.org On the web: http://doc.tms.org
TO REPORT A PROBLEM WITH YOUR SUBCRIPTION:

TO SUBMIT AN ARTICLE:

Telephone: (724) 776-9000 ext. 251 E-mail: mcirelli @tms.org

Reader Services

TO OBTAIN BACK ISSUES:

Check the listing of upcoming editorial topics at www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/ techcalendar.html Develop a 300-word abstract, including probable title and brief biographical sketch. Submit the abstract to via the web at www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/ abstract-author.html or by fax at (724) 776-3770
TO OBTAIN PERMISSION TO REPRINT AN ARTICLE:

Telephone: (724) 776-9000 ext. 251 Fax (724) 776-3770 E-mail: mcirelli @tms.org
TO CHANGE YOUR ADDRESS:

Telephone : (724) 776-9000; ext. 241 On the web: www.tms.org/Society/changeaddress.html

TO OBTAIN REPRINTS:

Contact Trudi Dunlap by e-mail at tdunlap@tms.org or by telephone at (724) 776-9000 ext. 275
TO ACQUIRE AN INDIVIDUAL PAPER IN PORTABLE DOCUMENT FORMAT:

JOM Web Site: www.tms.org/jom.html

2002 May JOM

Reprints are available for a fee one month after the issue is released For information contact Mark Cirelli by e-mail at mcirelli@tms.org or by telephone at (724) 776-9000 ext. 251

Visit the document ordering center at http://doc.tms.org

Access JOM on-line at no charge by visiting members.tms.org

TMS MEMBERS:

37