SYSTEMS

HANDBOOK

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PURPOSE DESIRED OUTPUTS Nature Values to be determined Definition of units Additional values INPUT VARIABLES Flow rate The State of the gas Pressure measurement Temperature measurement Density measurement Composition and compressibility Composition measurement Calorimeters CONVERTING TO BASE CONDITIONS Linearisation of flow meter Legal and/or contractual requirements ACCESSING STATION DATA RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTICS 5 5 6 6 7 7 9 10 10 15 15 16 17 18 21 21 22 25 25 26 27

GAS METERING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION This manual is one of a series that Instromet has prepared for the Gas industry. It describes the systems that can be used to determine a gas quantity or a flow rate. The total gas measurement system is described rather than the individual instruments. Individual instruments are dealt with in separate handbooks or in brochures. The specifications to which a measuring station is constructed, largely determine the optimal system. The first chapter is therefore devoted to the required outputs and their accuracy. The different ways to generate these outputs are the subject of the next two chapters dealing with the primary instruments and the processing of the information. The last chapters deal with practical conditions and constraints such as how to handle multiple streams, fiscal controls and regulations, other regulations and with maintenance, diagnostics and reliability. This handbook will only consider volumetric meters to determine gas flow. Details on the use of or the calculation procedures for orifice plates are not included.

PURPOSE There are two main purposes for which a system for flow measurement may be constructed: Process control or Custody transfer. Examples of process control applications are pipeline balancing and optimisation. No money is directly involved and accuracy of flow measurement is normally not critical. Instead, speed of response may be of crucial importance. Custody transfer, on the other hand, will always involve a reciprocal transfer of money, whence the importance of accuracy. Custody transfer involves a quantity determination rather than a flow rate. Speed of response is only of secondary importance. 5

This handbook will concentrate on meters for custody transfer but it will occasionally refer to specific process control applications. Apart from flow rate or quantity, there may also be quality related values or operational values that the contract requires to be within specified brackets and need to be recorded. These will only be dealt with if they can be derived from the measurements needed to determine quantity.

DESIRED OUTPUTS

Nature When measuring natural gas, its energy is generally the ultimate parameter sought as it quantifies the value of the gas in the market. This energy is determined from the quantity of gas and the gas heating value. In the case where the heating value of a gas can be assumed to be constant, the energy can be directly calculated by multiplying the quantity being measured by this value. The heating value may either be checked continuously or sampled periodically to verify the validity of this assumption. If the heating value is not constant, then this calculation may be done continuously on-line. The quantity of the gas is usually expressed in terms of volume at base or standard atmospheric conditions. This is the volume that the gas would occupy if the pressure and temperature were adjusted to a standard atmospheric temperature and pressure. This standard however, is not everywhere similarly defined and different units -metric or imperial- may be used. Though quantity may be expressed in terms of mass instead of volume, it is in most cases still desirable to obtain the standard volume as it is a valuable parameter in downstream processes. The actual volume (not reduced to standard conditions) that flows through an installation is mostly needed for operational and for contractual or legal metrology purposes. Apart from the above quantities that determine fiscal values, other information can be determined as a by-product of the fiscal metering.

One is the Wobbe index which is a measure of the quantity of energy delivered at the burner injector and is the common basis for comparing different gases. Other data, such as sulphur content or dew point may also be required in a few cases but will not be discussed further in this handbook as they are only used in specific circumstances and have to be measured by special instruments.

Values to be determined Energy : The total amount of energy that was delivered by the station in a certain specified time interval. Quantity : The volume that the gas delivered over this time interval would have occupied if it had been delivered under standard (or base) conditions. These conditions are roughly atmospheric pressure and temperature. Heating value : The amount of heat released at combustion per unit of volume (standard). The heating value may vary with time.

Definition of units The units in which the measured quantity is specified may be different from case to case. Contracts and/or legal requirements determine what the desired output units are. Attention should be given to the exact definitions of the units of the values to be determined. These will normally be given in the contract or by legal authorities. As even small discrepancies may add up to large sums of money, the definitions should be carefully checked. The following need particular attention: Quantity: The base conditions need to be verified. Pressure is mostly taken at 1.013 25 bar which is the average absolute atmospheric pressure at sea level. For the base temperature, however, one finds currently 0 C, 15 C and 60 F.

Heating value : Though the international standard ISO* 6976 [1] has now been universally accepted as basis for the calculation of heating value of a natural gas from its composition, it does still leave a number of options. The statement that the heating value shall be according to ISO 6976 is not sufficient to define the units of heating value. The heating value is the amount of energy released by the complete combustion of a base volume unit of the gas. There are three definitions of base temperature. This gives three different base volume units. The standard furthermore leaves the choice between superior heating value and inferior heating value. In the first case the water vapour formed at combustion is condensed and in the second it remains in the vapour phase. Superior also stands for gross, higher, total or upper and similarly inferior is the same as nett or lower. The gas industry predominantly uses superior heating value, whereas the heating and combustion industry traditionally uses the inferior heating value. Sometimes the term Calorific value is used instead of Heating value. A further complication is caused by the fact that the reference temperature to which the gas and air, and subsequently the products of combustion are brought before and after combustion can either be 0, 15, 20 or 25 C. As a consequence ISO 6976 gives twelve different definitions of heating value and it should be clearly established which one should be used. The standardised notation is as given below :

t1 V (p2 ,t 2 ) Hx [ t1 , V (p2 ,t 2 )]
x = i : inferior x = s : superior

: reference t for combustion : p and t of base volume

* ISO: International Organisation for Standardisation.

{
8

Energy units 1 kcal 1 kWh 1 Btu Heating value 1 kcal/m3 1 Btu/scf #1

#1: H[ t1 ,V (14.73 psia, 60 F)] #2: H[ t1 ,V (1.013 25 bar, 0 C)]

= = =

4.1868 3.6 1.05506

. 10-3 . 10-3

MJ MJ MJ

= =

4.1868 0.03929

. 10-3

MJ/m3 MJ/m-3 #2

Table 1 Conversion factors for Energy and Heating value The standard unit defined by ISO for the quantity of energy is the Joule (J). The gas industry uses the Megajoule (MJ). Occasionally the kcal is still in use. In some Anglo-Saxon countries the Btu is used. In places where electrical energy is dominant one may find the kWh. Heating value in ISO 6976 is given in terms of MJ/m3. Table 1 gives conversion factors. Energy: As the total quantity of energy delivered is equal to the volume of gas multiplied by the heating value, it will be on the same basis as the latter. So Superior or Inferior and for a reference temperature for combustion of either 0, 15, 20 or 25 C.

Additional values Apart from the values listed above that are generally sufficient to determine the value of the gas supplied, additional values may be required for metrological or contractual purposes. Line volume: The total volume that was delivered at the pressure and temperature prevailing at that time. This figure is only relevant for the quantity if pressure and temperature during the time are relatively stable.

Relative density : This is also known as specific gravity. It is the ratio between the density of the gas and the density of dry air at base pressure and temperature. Wobbe index : This parameter is also known as Wobbe number and related to the suitability of the gas to be used in a class of appliances. It is calculated by dividing the heating value by the square root of the relative density. The maximum capacity in terms of energy of an appliance with a certain fixed geometry is proportional to the Wobbe index. Increasing the Wobbe index by 10 % without changing the settings of the appliance will result in a 10% higher gas energy flow.

INPUT VARIABLES The input variables can be split in three categories: Flow rate State Composition Flow rate Volumetric flow meters generate a signal that is proportional to the flow of the gas at the prevailing pressure and temperature. The types of meters that are in regular use in the gas industry are: Diaphragm meters, Rotary piston meters, Turbine meters and Ultrasonic meters, in ascending order of capacity. The international organisation for legal metrology OIML has proposed a standard range of gas meter sizes in terms of maximum flow rate : the so-called G-series. Each size has approximately a 60% higher capacity than the size below. The number following the G is meant to be the average design flow in m3/h. This is about 60 % of the maximum flow rate. The G-series is given in Table 2. The piping in a station is generally designed for a maximum gas velocity. The gas meter is usually chosen to match the diameter thus found.

10

Max. flow rate ( m3 /h)

Pipe size (inches) V < 15 m/s V < 20 m/s 1/2 1/2 3/4 3/4 1 1.5 1.5 2 3 3 4 6 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30 S & L type Diaph.mtrs.
IRM Infinity Rotary Piston meters

4 6.5 10 16 25 40 65 100 160 250 400 650 1000 1600 2500 4000 6500 10 000 16 000 25 000

6.5 10 16 25 40 65 100 160 250 400 650 1000 1600 2500 4000 6500 10 000 16 000 25 000 40 000

3/4 3/4 1 1.5 1.5 2 3 3 4 6 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30 40 48

V <10 m/s

G-value

1/2 3/4 1 1 1.5 2 2 3 3 4 6 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30 40

SM-RI and Q-series turbine meters

I-type Industrial meters

Q.Sonic U.S. meter

Table 2 G-series gas meter sizing, pipe size required for specific maximum velocities and meter types available from INSTROMET in these sizes The reason to limit gas velocity is that the risk caused by vibrations to equipment that is attached to the pipe or inserted into the pipe, increases with increasing velocity. There is also an increased risk of organ pipe type resonances being set up in attached piping. These phenomena only rarely occur for velocities under 10 m/s. For higher velocities increasingly more attention has to be paid to detailed design to prevent this from happening. Table 2 also lists the diameters for particular maximum design velocities. In this table the INSTROMET meters available in these sizes can also be found. Important parameters for the different meter types are listed in Table 3. 11

P.Sonic U.S. meter

Table 3 Typical properties of different types of volumetric meters Typical accuracy Q.Sonic 0.5 % P.Sonic 1.0 % SM-RI 0.5 % (0,3% with curve linearisation) Q-series 1.0 % I-series 2.0 % IRM 0.3 % Installation influence Q.Sonic Satisfies requirements of ISO 9951 (High level perturbations) with 10D straight length upstream. P.Sonic Needs fully developed flow profile for best accuracy. SM-RI 2D straight length suffice for all ISO 9951 perturbations. Q-series For perturbed flows use external straightener as per ISO 9951, AGA Report No. 7 or ISO 5167. I-series External straighteners recommended if installation influence should be eliminated. IRM None at all in normal installations. Range Q.Sonic P.Sonic SM-RI Q-series I-series IRM Within 1 % from 1 : 40 for 6 to 1 : 160 for 30 Within 2 % from 1 : 40 for 4 to 1 : 160 for 30 Varies from 1 : 20 for low pressure to 1: 160 for 70 bar Varies from 1 : 20 for low pressure to 1: 160 for 70 bar 1 : 10 From 1:50 for G16 to 1 : 300 for G 250

Pressure drop (mbar) Q.Sonic None P.Sonic None SM-RI < 0.015 Q2/ D4 for D 6 < 0,01 Q2/ D4 for D > 6 Q-series < 0.015 Q2/ D4 for D 6 < 0,01 Q2/ D4 for D > 6 I-series < 0.02 Q2/ D4 IRM < 0.01 Q2/ D4

in kg/m3, Q in m3/h, D in inches

Maintenance Q.Sonic None P.Sonic None SM-RI Lubricate every two months Q-series Lubricate every two months I-series None IRM Change oil every five years 12

Overload Q.Sonic Insensitive to overload P.Sonic Insensitive to overload Short periods up to 120% of maximum flow rate. SM-RI Q-series Opening of valves should be done carefully. Acceleration from 0 to maximum flow should not take less than 3 I-series seconds. IRM

Diagnostics Q.Sonic Extensive on-line on at least 4 criteria P.Sonic On-line on three criteria SM-RI Consistency of HF and LF outputs on-line. In situ visual inspection of rotor and spin test off-line. Q-series Consistency of HF and LF outputs on-line. In situ visual inspection of rotor and spin test off-line. I-series None IRM Any malfunction results in blockage of the meter Electrical outputs Q.Sonic RS 485 accessing flow and diagnostics; flow rate as frequency P.Sonic RS 485 accessing flow and diagnostics; flow rate as frequency SM-RI Flow rate as HF and LF frequency Q-series Flow rate as HF and LF frequency I-series Flow rate as LF frequency IRM Flow rate as HF and LF frequency Electrical requirements Q.Sonic Ex-proof power supply P.Sonic Ex-proof power supply SM-RI Intrinsic safe power supply for electrical outputs Q-series Intrinsic safe power supply for electrical outputs I-series Suitable supply for voltage-free contacts IRM Intrinsic safe power supply for electrical outputs Body material Q.Sonic Any available steel to spec. P.Sonic Any available steel to spec. Any available steel to spec. Small sizes also in ductile iron (19 bar) SM-RI Q-series Any available steel to spec. Small sizes also in ductile iron (19 bar) I-series Aluminium only (10 bar) IRM Aluminium and ductile iron (19 bar) or steel for higher pressures These are typical properties - see brochures for pertinent data. 13

For fiscal purposes, the integrated volume is displayed in a register and in some meters this may be the only value that is accessible. This is for example the case with most diaphragm meters where there is no signal proportional to flow rate available. Most meters have electronic outputs. Ultrasonic meters of course, by nature, do. The flow rate is available on an RS 485 or RS 232 serial interface. Any available data for diagnostic purposes can be obtained from the same bus. A high frequency signal (0 - 10 kHz), proportional to the flow rate is also available from all INSTROMET Ultrasonic meters. Mechanical meters can either have low frequency (below 1 Hz) or high frequency outputs, proportional to the flow rate. Low frequency outputs are generally in the form of voltage-free contacts. High frequency outputs are generated electronically and may result from a proximity detector sensing the passage of the rotor blades of a turbine meter. The frequency at maximum flow rate ranges from 2500 Hz for small meters to 200 Hz for large ones. Many meters can be provided with a choice of outputs. To ascertain the accuracy, meters are normally tested or calibrated against a reference standard before delivery. Calibration of a meter against a reference standard can also be used to verify its proper operation after field service, for example in case of a dispute. The relevance of the results of a calibration for its performance in real life operation is determined by the following considerations: Sensitivity of the meter to differences in calibration and operating conditions. The lesser the sensitivity of a meter to operating conditions (pressure, temperature), the lesser the need for calibrating under operating conditions. The relationship between calibration conditions and practical operating circumstances. The closer the relation, the more accurate practical performance can be predicted. The stability of the meter. High accuracy of the calibration is only useful for sufficiently stable meters. The stability of the operating conditions. For widely varying operating conditions, the performance of the meter should be either independent of those conditions or its dependence should be known. 14

The calibration of a meter to the highest possible accuracy is of little use if the meter is to be used in highly perturbed flows and with heavily polluted gas. For a highly stable meter for which the influence of operating conditions (pressure and installation) is small and/or that operates at moderate pressures, a single test at atmospheric conditions may be sufficient for most applications. However, calibration under conditions that resemble the practical application to a greater extent will only increase metering accuracy.

The State of the gas To calculate quantity in terms of base or standard volume one needs to know the quantity of matter, e.g. the number of moles, that occupies the actual volume measured under operating conditions. This is done by using a suitable Equation of State for the type of gas measured and by using measured pressure and temperature.

Pressure measurement The pressure used in the Equation of State is always the absolute pressure. Absolute pressure is 0 in vacuum and approximately 100 kPa (1 bar, 14.7 psi) in the atmosphere at sea level. At present absolute pressure sensors are readily available and thus there is no necessity to use gauge pressure together with the atmospheric pressure. Moreover, absolute pressure sensors have proven to be more stable. If the use of gauge pressure cannot be avoided, the absolute pressure can be calculated from the gauge pressure by adding the atmospheric pressure : Pabs=Pgauge + Pbaro, where Pbaro stands for the atmospheric pressure. In ascending steps of complication one can determine the atmospheric pressure in the following way: 15

a.

Use a constant pressure approximately equal to the local average atmospheric pressure to add to Pgauge. Care should be taken that the altitude of the station is taken into account, as the average atmospheric pressure is normally taken at sea level. Measured atmospheric pressure decreases when going to higher altitudes by approximately 0.12 mbar per meter. Use actual on site measured atmospheric pressure.

b.

Unless prevented by existing procedures or regulations, an absolute pressure sensor should be used in view of these complications. The temperature dependence of modern pressure sensors at different pressures is charted during manufacture and the effect is automatically compensated for in operation. These sensors can therefore be highly linear over a wide range of temperatures and pressures, and are often referred to as Smart sensors. If the flow meter has been provided with a pressure reference point (Pr point), the pressure sensor should be connected to that point. If no pressure point has been provided on the meter it should be drilled at right angles with the pipe wall and the tapping should be without burrs.

Temperature measurement There is a large number of accurate temperature gauges available. Absolute temperature (expressed in Kelvin) is used in the Equation of State but differs only from temperature in degrees Celsius by a constant: Tabs = TC + 273.15 Platinum resistance temperature sensors and semiconductor sensors both give very good accuracy. Platinum resistance sensors are less vulnerable to the effects of electric storms and therefore preferable in open field installations. Care has to be taken that the temperature of the sensitive part of the sensor assumes indeed the temperature of the gas. In laboratories naked sensors are used preferably. In practical installations thermowells are used but care should be taken that their influence is minimised. 16

Thermowells therefore have to protrude to sufficient depth in the conduit. A length of 3/4 of the pipe diameter or 150 mm, whichever is less, is often recommended. The sensitive part of the transmitter should be located as as close as posible to the bottom of the well.The heat leakage to ambient should be small, and for best accuracy the part of the transmitter protruding from the pipe should be insulated. If a thermowell has been provided in the meter it should be used. In absence of a built-in thermowell it should preferably be mounted downstream of the meter within 4D.

Density measurement Densitometers of the vibrating cylinder type have been used successfully in gas metering stations. It is essential that the density of the gas in the densitometer is equal to the density at the appropriate point in the volumetric flow meter. If the flow meter has been provided with a pressure reference point (Pr point), the pressure in the densitometer should be identical to the pressure at that point. The temperature of the gas in the densitometer should be equal to the gas temperature in the meter. The best way to achieve this is to insert the densitometer in a well in the conduit. For best accuracy heat leakage to ambient should be prevented by suitable insulation. The instrument is slightly sensitive to the velocity of sound in the gas, the VOS effect. For highest accuracy this has to be corrected for or the densitometers have to be calibrated with a similar gas. The gas in the density meter should be of the same composition as the gas in the flow meter. As composition tends to vary slowly, it is sufficient to have a small bleed of gas through the densitometer. Dirt or condensation is catastrophical for the accuracy and a filter is essential. A schematical drawing of a densitometer installation is given in Figure 1.

17

Filter

Pr

Densitometer

Fig. 1 Connecting a densitometer

Correlations for compressibility have now developed to a point that measurement on the basis of pressure, temperature and compressibility (PTZ) is equally accurate to using a densitometer. As a result many companies presently prefer PTZ as this is easier to install and maintain.

Composition and compressibility The composition of the gas influences the constants in the Equation of State. This is mostly translated in the Compressibility factor or Z. Several methods exist to calculate Z. In many cases the particular one to be used is dictated by contract. The most recent and most accurate methods are given by AGA [2] and GERG [3,4]. They describe two methods to calculate Z. The first is based on a detailed chemical analysis of the gas. It is valid for the pressure and temperature area given in Figure 2. The uncertainties are also given in this figure. The calculations are valid for concentrations of the individual components listed in Table 4. AGA Report no. 8 also lists a wider concentration range where the equations can be applied with lesser accuracy. The GERG method that uses a detailed analysis is based on a different model and the results are therefore not identical to those obtained with the comparable AGA Detailed Characterization Method. The GERG equation is only valid in the innermost region of Figure 2. 18

140

1%

70 0.5%

Pressure MPa

17 12 0.3% 0.1%

0 -130

-60

-8 62 120 o Temperature C

200

Fig. 2 Pressure and temperature field for validity of compressibility equations

The second method to calculate Z is simpler and only needs three of the four following quantities: * the relative density (specific gravity) * the gross heating value * the mole fraction of nitrogen (N2) * the mole fraction of carbon dioxide (CO2) `This method can only be applied in the central area of figure 2.

19

Quantity

Normal range 0.56 to 0.87 477 to 1150 18.7 to 45.1 45.0 to 100.0 0 to 10.0 0 to 4.0 0 to 1.0 0 to 0.3 0 to 0.2 0 to 50.0 0 to 30.0 0 to 0.2 none none none none 0 to 0.05 0 to 0.02

Expanded range 0.07 to 1.52 0 to 1800 0 to 66 0 to 100.0 0 to 100.0 0 to 12 0 to 6.0 0 to 4.0 0 to dewpoint 0 to 100.0 0 to 100.0 0 to 3.0 0 to 100.0 0 to 3.0 0 to 1.0 0 to 21.0 0 to dew point 0 to 100.0

Units

Relative density Heating value Superior heating value Methane Ethane Propane Butanes Pentanes Hexane plus Nitrogen Carbon dioxide Helium Hydrogen Carbon monoxide Argon Oxygen Water Hydrogen sulphide

Superior Btu/scf 3 MJ/m Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole % Mole %

Table 4 Gas mixture ranges covered by AGA report number 8. The normal range is covered by both SGERG and AGA 8 Gross Characterization Method

It can also handle mixtures of natural gas and manufactured gas. In that case the mole percentage of hydrogen (H2) is also needed. The method is not applicable to gas-air mixtures. This simpler method is known as the Gross Characterization Method in AGA 8 [2] and it is identical to the one listed in SGERG [4].

20

Composition measurement The chemical composition of natural gas can be measured conveniently by means of a gas chromatograph such as the ENCAL 2000. In large stations such as in transmission lines or at power stations, the total value of trade is so high that the on-line application of a gas chromatograph is often warranted. Gas chromatographs can also be used to monitor the composition for a number of stations, provided these are supplied from one point. Gas chromatographs need a * sampling system with sample conditioning set to provide a representative sample to the chromatograph * a sample conditioner * carrier gas (helium) * calibration gas of a suitable composition for the range of gases to be measured A separate Instromet Handbook is available on gas chromatography giving more detailed information. Gas chromatographs provide primarily the chemical composition. From the composition one can determine the heating value of the gas, the relative density and also the Wobbe index. These data are calculated in the ENCAL 2000. As the chromatograph has determined the mole percentages nitrogen and carbon dioxide, it provides all data necessary for calculation of Z either from full composition or by the Gross Characterization Method (SGERG).

Calorimeters To measure the energy supplied in smaller stations, a more compact and economic calorimeter can be used such as an instrument from the TruTherm range.

21

For the Tru-Therm one needs : * sampling system to provide a representative sample to the chromatograph * a pressure regulator * compressed air, instrument-grade * ultra-high purity methane as calibration gas The Tru-Therm provides the heating value, the specific gravity and the Wobbe index. For the calculation of the compressibility, the concentration of either carbon dioxide or nitrogen has to be known. In many cases a good estimate of one of these components can be made on the basis of known average compositions of the different gases that make up the mixture. At lower pressures (<10 bar) a slight error in this value usually does not matter too much for the end result.

CONVERTING TO BASE CONDITIONS To convert the volume or flow rate measured at line conditions to base conditions, two types of instruments exist. These are the Flow Computer and the Electronic Volume Corrector Device, EVCD. These two types of devices differ in a number of aspects. These are listed in table 5. Conversion of the measured line volume to base volume relies on the equation of state for the particular gas. PV0 = ZRT (1)

In this equation R is the universal gas constant and equals 8.31451 J/mol K. This equation is valid for one mole of gas and describes the relation between the volume V0, the (absolute) pressure P and the (absolute) temperature T.

22

The compressibility factor is dependent on the gas composition and on pressure and temperature. For very low pressures the compressibility factor for any gas is equal to 1. Instrument
Property 900 & 500 series Electronic correctors on/close to meter at every LF impulse battery Model 999 Electronic Correctors on/close to meter at every LF impule battery (5 yrs) 700 series Flow computers remote in safe area fixed, determined by FC mains

Installation Calculation rate Power supply Z factor: fixed adjustable on-line

yes on most models no

yes SGERG/AGA 8 no <0,2% no no no extensive and flexible up to 80 bara

yes yes yes only limited by sensors available available available available barriers to hazardous areas

Best uncertainty <0.3 % Multistream Orifice plates no no

Ultrasonic meters no Data logging Safety on some models Intrinsic

Table 5 Comparison of volume correctors and flow computers

A typical plot of compressibility as a function of pressure and temperature is given in Figure 3 . Ideal gases, such as helium, have a very simple equation of state which is also known as Boyles and Gay-Lussacs law or Boyles and Charles law. For these gases the compressibility factor Z is equal to 1 for a wide range of pressures and temperatures.

23

1.0 0.9 Compressibility Z 0.8 0.7 0 C 0.6 0.5 0.4 0

O

75 C 50 C 25 C
O O

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Pressure (bar)

Fig. 3 Compressibility as a function of pressure for a typical low molecular mass natural gas

We are generally dealing with n moles of gas and can rewrite (1) as V = nZRT with V the volume occupied by n moles of gas. (2)

Applying (2) to n moles of gas at the conditions in the meter (subscript m) and the same number of moles at base conditions (subscript b), we find Vb = Vm (PmZbTb) / (PbZmTm) (3)

24

Equation (1) can also be rewritten in terms of density P/ = ZRT/M where M is the molar mass (Molecular mass) of the gas. In a similar way we can then write Vb = Vm m / b (4)

It is the volume correction device or flow computer that performs calculation (3) or (4).

Linearisation of flow meter If the error of a flow meter is known, it can be corrected for. Some flow computers have the ability to carry out this correction. First the correction data resulting from calibration are fed into the instrument. Next, the appropriate correction factor at the particular flow rate is determined and applied.The result will be perfectly linear. The 700 series of INSTROMET flow computers provides for two systems of correction: linear interpolation between the test points or a polynomial, the so-called Straatsma polynomial. Correction can either be on the basis of flow rate or on the basis of Reynolds number (see turbine meter Handbook).

Legal and/or contractual requirements The figure resulting from the calculations will serve for invoicing. The reliability of this figure is from utmost importance and it is therefore that specific requirements have to be met for contractual reasons and, in many cases, to conform with legislation. Almost all INSTROMET equipment has been at least approved by Weights and Measures Officials in Europe. Requirements vary slightly from country to country though the aims are the same. These aims are: * Sufficient accuracy over a range of operating temperatures and pressures.

25

* * *

Sufficient accuracy over a range of ambient temperatures. Result not influenced by electromagnetic interference. Safeguarding from interference.

The last is traditionally implemented by sealing of the instrument or parts of it. There is now a trend for modern instruments to use passwords and a built-in non-erasable audit log stored in memory. As gas meters are situated in areas that are often zoned as hazardous, all INSTROMET instruments are constructed according to stringent European CENELEC safety requirements for at least zone 2. Instruments are either explosion-proof, intrinsically safe (field mounted EVCDs) or connected to the hazardous areas by safety barriers. The ENCAL 2000 is explosion-proof. Approval consists of a type approval and tests on individual equipment or manufacturing process to assure conformity with the approved type.

ACCESSING STATION DATA Traditionally a meter reader visually reads all registers and records some operational data during his visit. These are checked for consistency and then used for invoicing. Remote meter reading using telephone lines is now becoming more popular and equipment such as the Metretek range provides adequate means for this purpose. For very large stations, the data are of such importance that it is often imperative to continuously monitor both the station flow and the operation of the equipment at a control centre. A station may consist of a number of meter runs, each equipped with their own flow computer, back-up or check meters, alarms and diagnostics and a gas chromatograph. As the instruments all operate independently, interrogation can only efficiently be carried out through a buffer effectively decoupling the telemetry from the operation of the instruments. INSTROMET provides a Station Controller for this purpose.

26

Dependent on the design philosophy, all or part of the data relating to the equipment operation are transmitted to the control centre. Data are stored locally or remotely to serve for diagnostics, trend and fault analysis. A local PC may be provided to facilitate analysis.

RELIABILITY AND DIAGNOSTICS Present gas metering equipment is very reliable. If used with normal commercial, clean gas and with normal maintenance the technical life expectancy of a system is in the order of at least 20 years. Failures can be classified in two types: * Catastrophic failure * Degradation of performance. Catastrophic failure is mostly obvious and alarms are installed to indicate gross malfunction. There are three main methods to check on degradation: * Calibration * History * Diagnostics Calibration is traditionally carried out on a regular basis, starting at commissioning. As far as possible, all equipment related to the process is compared in the field with a reference. The instruments are then adjusted to read accurately. Logging the adjustments provides a control chart that gives an early warning on degradation. This used to be particularly suitable for pressure gauges and analog electronic instruments. In the field, calibration of flow meters is not possible. Calibration in the field of pressure and temperature transducers has become counter- productive as the stability and initial factory calibration of modern high quality transducers give superior accuracy than what is achievable with field references. 27

Gas composition and calorimetry are the measurements in a gas station that are most sensitive to drift. The ENCAL 2000 and the Tru-Therm have both built-in automatic calibration procedures to check their operation with the aid of a reference gas and automatically compensate for drift. When one can be sure that a parameter (pressure, temperature) has to be within certain limits or when there is a relation between two or more parameters, we can use diagnostic systems. For example, pressure at no place in the station can be significantly higher than the inlet pressure. If a pressure is found well above the inlet pressure one can conclude that there is a malfunction of some kind. Another example is the correlation between the corrected and uncorrected volumes. Average pressure and temperature are known to be within certain limits. The figure calculated from the uncorrected volume with this average pressure and temperature should not be too different from the corrected volume. Some instruments have extensive built-in diagnostics. An example is the INSTROMET multipath ultrasonic meter. In this meter the data from all 5 paths are continuously compared. Each path yields the velocity of sound, and differences between the paths have to be within certain limits. Furthermore the automatically adjusted gain has to remain below a certain value. The noise received by the transducers is automatically analysed. Also, the shape of all received pulses is checked, and pulses that do not fulfill certain criteria are rejected. The percentage of rejected pulses is an excellent indication for health monitoring. Diagnosis relies often on a degree of redundancy. This is the case with the 5 paths of the INSTROMET multipath meters. For very important stations additional redundancy may be built in. Using redundant flow meters it has been proven that deviations of 0.2 % or less of a single meter run can be detected within one hour in a well designed and maintained station. Two volumetric meters in series can be very accurately compared. By correcting for the differential pressure between the two meters, the line volumes are compared, rather than the base volumes, thus minimising the influence of additional instrumentation.

28

P + P -

V1

V2

Fig. 4 Direct comparison of line volumes in two meters

In figure 4 the line volumes relate as: V2= V1(1+P/P) In this figure an SM-RI-X turbine meter and a Q.Sonic ultrasonic meter are drawn but the same system can be used for any two volumetric meters of either the same or different kind. Slight errors in either P or P have little effect on the result. If the gas temperature is much different from ambient, the gas cannot be assumed to have the same temperature in both meters. In that case the temperature difference can be also corrected for. If a station consists of a number of meter runs in parallel, this offers another opportunity to check meter performance. It has been shown in practice that the flow distribution over a manifold is very constant. The ratio of flows in the parallel runs can therefore be logged and used as another diagnosis tool. To be able to use this most efficiently, all runs should operate continuously. In figure 5 a schematic drawing is given of a system that would give the highest accuracy presently achievable and have powerful and sensitive diagnostics. The system consists of two parallel runs with each two volumetric meters in series. The meters in series are continuously compared as are the two runs. Even a small drift in any one meter can be detected in a very short time, and by comparison with the data from the other run, it can be 29

Encal 2000 Encal 2000 Remote 793-SC 793-1 793-4 793-1 793-4

Local computer

SCADA Remote computer

T + P -

T + P -

Fig. 5 Example of high accuracy system with extensive diagnostics and a high level of redundancy 30

established which one is the cause. Gas composition is measured by an ENCAL 2000 gas chromatograph and provides data to continuously update heating value and compressibility. Temperature and pressure are digitally read using a HART bus, and a 793 flow computer calculates Quantity in base volume and Energy without adding any additional error. A 793 SC provides the interface between the flow computers and the outside world. It distributes the ENCAL based composition to the FCs, compares volumetric meters, determines total flow and collects diagnostics of individual instruments. It can communicate data to a local or remote computer or both, tying in with users existing instrumentation systems if necessary.

31

REFERENCES [1] ISO 6976, Natural gas - Calculation of calorific values, density, relative density and Wobbe index from composition AGA Report No. 8, Compressibility Factors of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Gases (Second Edition, November 1992) GERG Technical Monograph, High Accuracy Compressibility Factor Calculation for Natural Gases and Similar Mixtures by Use of a Truncated Virial Equation Standard GERG Virial Equation for Field Use, Simplification of the Input Data Requirements for the GERG Virial Equation - An Alternative Means of Compressibility Factor Calculation for Natural Gases and Similar Mixtures

[2].

[3]

[4]

32

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