JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY | 3t 435-446 (1992)

Relations Between First Grade Stress, Temperament, and Behavior Problems

RICHARD D. RENDE Columbia University ROBERT PLOMIN The Pennsylvania State Universi~
This paper examines relations between first grade stress,temperament, and behavior problems in 164 children after the completion of first grade. Specifically,the goals of the study were (a) to examine relations between both child and parent reports of the child's stress in first grade and behavior problems in school, (b) to determine if school stress interacts with the moderator variable temperament in predicting behavior problems, and (c) to examine such relations separately for boys and girls to assessif gender differences are present. Child and parent reports of the occurrence and upsettingness of 18 items associated with first grade were collected. Parents completed a temperament inventory; behavior problems were assessedby teacher ratings. Both child and parent reports of event upsettingnesscorrelated significantly with externalizing behavior problems for boys, and with both internalizing and externalizing problems for girls. There was also evidence for interactions between first grade stress and temperamental characteristics in predicting externalizing behavior problems. Implications for research on childhood stressresulting from developmentally relevant life transitions are discussed.

Many studies relating stress to behavior problems in childhood have focused on the impact of major life events (for reviews, see Compas, 1987; Johnson, 1986). However, there are other potential sources of stress for children (Compas, 1987). In particular, there have been numerous suggestions that developmentally relevant life transitions may also be stressful for some children, and hence may be associated with negative outcomes (e.g., Dunn, 1988; Humphrey, 1984). One developmentally relevant life transition is the beginning of elementary school (e.g., Humphrey, 1984). Studies of older children in elementary school have documented that school-related events are a source of stress (e.g., Colton, 1985; Humphrey, 1984; Phillips, 1978; Schultz & Heuchert, 1983), However, the stress of the first year of elementary school has received little direct study, and consequences of stressful experiences in beginning school have yet to be explored. Support for the Colorado Adoption Project (CAP) was provided by the National Institutes of Health (HD-10333, HD-18426, MH-43899). Correspondence and requests for reprints should be sent to Richard D. Rende, Columbia University, Clinical and Genetic Epidemiology, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Unit 14, 722 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032.
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In a recent report, we provided data on the stress of first grade (Rende & Plomin, 1990). Recent research on childhood stress have incorporated child as well as parent reports of stressful events and the upsettingness of events to the child (e.g., Brown & Cowen, 1988; Colton, 1985; Compas, Howell, Phares, Williams, & Ledoux, 1989; Rende & Plomin, 1991; Sandler, Wolchik, Braver, & Fogas, 1986). Two important conclusions from this line of work are that children's own perceptions of event upsettingness often differ from ratings by adults, and that children's ratings are associated with outcomes such as behavioral adjustment. Therefore, in assessing the stress of first grade, we obtained both child and parent reports of the occurrence and upsettingness of 18 potentially stressful items. Salient findings included the following: (a) certain items (e.g., teasing by peers, bullying by peers) were especially stressful for some children, (b) children varied considerably in their reports of the total number of items experienced and a total upsettingness rating, (c) children reported both more items and a greater upsettingness rating than parents, and (d) child and parent reports were only moderately correlated (r = .47 for total number of items, and r = .36 for total upsettingness rating). The above findings suggest that children vary in their experiences in adapting to first grade; however, the relation between such experiences and outcomes have not yet been examined. There is a growing literature documenting how stressors such as major life events influence maladaptation in middle childhood (e.g., Masten et al., 1988; Wertlieb, Weigel, & Feldstein, 1987, 1989; Wertlieb, Weigel, Springer, & Feldstein, 1987). Furthermore, there is evidence that children's self-reports of the upsettingness of major life events correlate with school adjustment (Pryor-Brown & Cowen, 1990). Given this, it is reasonable to speculate that first grade stress may also be related to behavior problems in school. Importantly, in addition to extending our knowledge about behavioral consequences of stress in childhood, such a finding may carry implications for identifying children who have difficulties adjusting to elementary school. As the stress of first grade may be related to behavior problems in children, it is also important to consider other factors which may influence this relationship. For example, it is often suggested that temperament may influence or moderate children's reactions to stressful events (e.g., Lerner & East, 1984; Rutter, 1985, 1986). Some recent studies have confirmed that temperament and stress resulting. from major life events may interact in predicting behavior problems in children (Wertlieb, Weigel, Springer, & Feldstein, 1987; Wertlieb et al., 1989). An additional consideration is the possibility of gender effects, as stress and moderators interact differently in boys and girls (Masten et al., 1988). The purpose of the present report is to determine if there are contemporaneous relationships between child and parent reports of first grade stress, and behavior problems in school as reported by teachers. In addition, hierarchical regression models were used to assess the impact of temperament as a moderator which influences the relation between first grade stress and behavior problems. Hier-

FIRSTGRADES R S TES

437

archical models were run separately by gender in order to examine possible gender differences in the effects of first grade stress and temperament on behavior problems. METHODS The total sample included the control subjects in the Colorado Adoption Project (CAP; Plomin & DeFries, 1985; Plomin, DeFries, & Fulker, 1988). These were 164 children and their parents. The CAP, begun in 1974, is an ongoing longitudinal study examining adoptive and nonadoptive families. The control--that is, nonadoptive--families participating in this study were origina!ly recruited for the longitudinal CAP through local hospitals after the birth of their child. Two hundred forty-five families were originally recruited; here we focus on 164 children who were assessed during the summer following first grade, at the average age of 7 years. The mean age of the children was 88 months (SD = 4.31); there were 91 males and 73 females. One hundred forty-eight (90%) of the parents in the study were mothers. The sample consists of nonadoptive families who are representative of the greater Denver metropolitan area in terms of parental education and socioeconomic status (for details, see Plomin & DeFries, 1985; Plomin et al., 1988). Mean years of education was 15.1 (SD =- 2.0)for mothers, and 15.7 (SD = 2.2) for fathers; mean occupational NORC ratings were 36.5 (SD = 15.1) for mothers, and 51.2 (SD = 12.1) for fathers. Measures and Procedures During the 7-year-old assessments in the longitudinal CAP, children and parents were administered a battery of measures during a 3-hour session at the University of Colorado. In addition, teachers were asked to complete information on the children via mail. First Grade Stress Children and parents were administered an inventory containing 18 items associated with first grade; the items were chosen based on open-ended interviews with children, parents, teachers, and clinicians designed to generate a list of representative items associated with first grade (Rende & Plomin, 1990). Areas represented include academic concerns (3 items), peer relations (6 items), teacher relations (3 items), parent relations (2 items), and general hassles (4 items). One parent of each child was given a form listing the 18 items and was instructed to (a) indicate if the item was experienced by the child during the previous year, and (b) for items which were experienced, rate the upsettingness of the item to the child on a 4-point scale (0 = not at all upsetting, 3 = very upsetting). Each child was interviewed separately concerning the occurrence and upset-

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RENDE AND PLOMIN

tingness of each item. The interview was semistructured, with the interviewer asking the child if she/he experienced each item during the past year, and then asking the child to discuss his or her feelings concerning each experienced item (with the interviewer being blind to the parent's responses). In particular, the interviewer asked the child, "How did [the item] make you feel? How upset were you?" and then asked the child to rate the upsettingness on the 4-point scale. Pilot work (n = 30) indicated that 1-week test-retest reliability of the ratings was .83. Descriptive statistics for both parent and child reports of event occurrence and upsettingness for each item are presented in Table 1. Two composite scores were computed for children and parents. First, the total number of items reported as being experienced by each child and parent was determined by a simple count of events. In addition, a total rating of upsettingness was calculated by summing the ratings for experienced items. Children reported experiencing a mean of 6.88 items during the year, while the mean number of items reported by parents was 5.54. Mean upsettingness ratings were 8.64 (child report) and 7.99 (parent report), respectively.

TABLE 1 Percentage of Event Occurrence, Rank Order, and Means and Standard Deviations of Event Upsettingness for First Grade Events Child Event
Picked on by bully Teased/scared by older kids Teased/scared by other first graders Upset by leaving parent Does not get along with teacher Scolded by teacher Difficulties going to/from school Accidents in lunch room Lost or stolen property Unpopular with peers School work too hard Academic pressure Started wearing glasses Popular with peers Had to make friends Doubled or more time away from home School work too easy Teacher's pet

Parent Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

%
39 52 37 30 12 33 38 41 58 18 35 40 3 74 24 63 54 36

M(SD)
2.25(0.98) 1.86(1.08) 1.82(1.10) 1.73(0.94) 1.70(1.17) 1.60(1.13) 1.48(1.15) 1.41(1.05) 1.31(1.05) 1.23(1.19) 1.22(1.11) 1.20(1.04) 1.00(0.89) 0.79(1.03) 0.78(0.97) 0.75(0.94) 0.65(0.98) 0.56(0.97)

%
27 63 56 12 9 31 24 12 34 16 28 32 4 79 15 59 27 28

M(SD)
1.73(0.76) 1.50(0.71) 1.45(0.65) 1.16(0.89) 2.07(0.83) 1.67(0.65) 1.48(0.66) 1.47(0.84) 1.21(0.82) 1.27(0.78) 1.39(0.65) 1.75(0.71) 1.71(1.99) 1.49(1.11 ) 1.84(0.94) 0.99(1.02) 1.55(0.95) 1.20(1.03)

Rank
4 8 12 17 1 6 10 11 15 14 13 3 5 9 2 18 7 16

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439

Temperament The Colorado Child Temperament Inventory (CCTI; Rowe & Plomin, 1977) was used to index child temperament. The CCTI is an amalgamation of the EAS temperament dimensions and the nine dimensions of temperament postulated by the New York Longitudinal Study (see Buss & Plomin, 1984). Parents were asked to rate their child on 20 items using a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Three dimensions--emotionality, activity, and sociability-were used in this study. The median alpha reliability of the EAS scales is .80, and the median 1-week test-retest reliability has been reported to be .73 (Rowe & Plomin, 1977). The EAS dimensions are moderately correlated: emotionality correlates - . 0 8 with activity and - . 2 2 with sociability, and activity and sociability correlate .41. Behavior Problems Teachers completed the teacher form of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBC; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1986). The CBC consists of 113 items of behavioral symptomatology that yield two second-order factors, Internalizing and Externalizing, as well as a total score. In the present sample, the Externalizing dimension was highly correlated with the total score (r = .95) but less so with the Internalizing dimension (r = .36); hence, only the Internalizing and Externalizing scales were included in analyses.
RESULTS

Correlations Correlations of first grade stress and temperament with behavior problems were computed (see Table 2, p. 440) and examined for salient variables to be included in hierarchical regression analyses. As indicated in Table 2, both children's and parent's ratings of the stress of first grade were significantly correlated with externalizing problems; child and parent reports of the total number of items experienced did not correlate with behavior problems. In addition, the temperament dimensions of sociability and activity were negatively associated with internalizing problems. Hierarchical Regression Models Hierarchical regression models were run in order to investigate the relation between first grade stress and behavior problems after considering effects of gender and temperament. The advantage of hierarchical regression models is that the variance may be partitioned in a theoretically driven way, as the investigator specifies the order of variables to be entered into the regression equation (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). In separate models, the two measures of behavior problems (Internalizing and Externalizing) were predicted by (a) gender, (b) temperament, (c) first grade stress, and (d) interactions between first grade stress and tempera-

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TABLE 2 Correlations of Stress and Temperament With Behavior Problems Behavior Problems (Teacher Report) Internalizing Temperament (Parent Report)
Emotionality Activity Sociability .08 -.20" -.21 * * .15 .01 -.09

Externalizing

First Grade Stress

Child report Occurrence .01 .08

Rating
Parent report Occurrence

.05
-.02

.26"*
.11

Rating
*p < .05. * * p < .01.

.06

.20"

ment. Gender was entered first because it is a fixed prior effect. The set of temperament variables was entered next because temperament is considered to be a relatively stable characteristic of the individual. The total upsettingness rating was then entered to determine the predictive value of first grade stress after partialling out the effects of gender and temperament; child and parent ratings were run separately. Finally, alternative interaction terms were entered last to determine if the joint effects of stress and temperament can explain variance beyond the variance explained by stress and temperament independently; each alternative interaction will be presented. Table 3 shows the results of the hierarchical analyses predicting teacher reports of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems using the child's report of first grade stress. For the Internalizing dimension, the temperament factors explained a significant portion of variance. First grade stress had little explanatory value after the effects of temperament were considered; a similar finding was observed when the parent report of first grade stress was used. A different pattern emerged for externalizing disorders. Temperament had a nonsignificant effect, and first grade stress explained a significant portion (4%) of the variance after considering gender and temperament. In addition, there was evidence of significant Temperament Stress interactions for all three dimensions of temperament. As shown in Figure l, high stress and high emotionality were associated with externalizing problems; high activity and low sociability also interacted with high stress in predicting externalizing problems. The same pattern of results was observed when the parent report of first grade stress was employed in the regression model.

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TABLE 3 Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Teachers' Report of Behavior Problems Internalizing Step Predictor 1. Gender 2. Temperament Emotionality Activity Sociability 3. Child rating of first grade stress (FG) 4. Temperament x FG (alternatives) Emotionality x FG Activity x FG Sociability x FG Total R2 /Ta .01 .07" (13-weight) (0.02) (-.01) ( - . 15) (-.38) .01 (.15) .04* Externalizing R2 .04" .02 (13-weight) (2.68) (.02) (.07) (. 11 ) (.24)

.00 .00 .01 .10"

(.00) (.00) (.01)

.05" .04* .05* .15"

(.04) (.04) (.05)

Note. The increment in R2 is indicated along with the significance of the increment ( F test). *p < .05.

High Ernotionahty Externalizing Problems

Low Emotionalily

20

10

Low

High

Child Ratings of FLrst-G~ade Stress Figure !. Interaction of children's rating of first grade stress (low versus high, median split) and children's emotionality (low versus high, median split) in predicting externalizing problems, as reported by teachers.

4~ 4~ rJ

TABLE 4 Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Teachers' Report of Behavior Problems Separately by Gender Internalizing Boys Step Predictor
1. Temperament Emotionality Activity Sociability 2. Child rating of first grade stress (FG) 3. Temperament FG (alternatives) Emotionality x FG Activity FG Sociability FG Total R2 * p < .05.

Externalizing Girls Boys Rz

.06" (-.06) (-.12) (-.37) (.30) (.16) (.09) .04" (.31) .09*

Girls R2
.00 (.13) (.37) (.10) (.41)

Rz
.12"

([3-weight)
(.04) (-.25) (-.40)

R2
.05

([~-weight)

(J~-weight)

(J3-weight)

.00

(.13)

.13"

(.27)

.00 .03 .00 .15"

(.00) (.02) (.00)

.01 .02 .01 .20"

(.00) (.02) (.01)

.09" .07* .09* .19"

(.08) (.07) (.08)

.00 .03 .06* .15"

(.00) (.02) (.07)

Note. The increment in R is indicated along with the significance of the increment (F test).

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Hierarchical Regression Models by Gender Separate regression models were conducted by gender to examine possible differences in the interrelations between first grade stress and temperament in predicting behavior problems. Table 4 shows the results of hierarchical models predicting internalizing and externalizing problems separately for boys and girls. Temperament is more strongly associated with both internalizing and externalizing behavior problems for boys than for girls. Stress also relates differently to internalizing behavior problems for girls and boys: A main effect of stress emerges for girls but not for boys. Neither gender shows Temperament x Stress interactions in the prediction of internalizing problem behavior. The pattern of results for the Externalizing dimension in girls and boys was similar to the pattern for the entire sample: main effects of first grade stress and interactions between temperament and first grade stress. The pattern of findings discussed above was replicated when the parent report of first grade stress was used in the regression model.
DISCUSSION Stress resulting from the developmentally relevant life transition of entering first grade appears to be related to behavior problems, as reported by teachers. This relation was observed for both boys and girls. Similar to studies using other measures of childhood stress, such as the impact of major life events (e.g., Johnson, 1986), the relation was only moderate. Nevertheless, the results of this study indicate first grade stress should be considered as a relevant factor when determining the role of stressors in behavior problems in middle childhood. Consistent with current research on childhood stress (e.g., Masten et al., 1988; Rende & Plomin, 1991), gender differences emerged in the present study. First grade stress was associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems in girls; conversely, in boys, first grade stress (and interactions of temperament and stress) predicted only externalizing problems. One speculation is that first grade stress acts as a general risk factor in the development of behavior problems, and other factors (such as gender) may contribute to the actual problems observed. However, as the present data set is contemporaneous, causal links between stress and behavior problbms may not be examined; it could be, for example, that children with externalizing behavior problems are more likely to experience stressful transactions with peers. Future work examining the causal links between stressful encounters in school and behavioral problems, as well as the role of gender, will be especially illuminating. Another important consideration for research on childhood stress is that child reports of total upsettingness correlated as highly with teacher ratings of behavior problems as did parent reports. This finding is consistent with other reports linking children's reports of stress to outcome measures (Pryor-Brown & Cowen,

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1990; Rende & Plomin, 1991), and lends further support to the argument that young children's own perceptions of stress should be considered (Compas, 1987; Johnson, 1986). Furthermore, as children's ratings of stress were more highly associated with behavior problems as compared to children's report of the number of events experienced, it may be argued that children's perceptions of event upsettingness (as opposed to counts of events) should be considered in childhood stress research. Interesting relations also existed with the moderator variable temperament. Most striking was the evidence for interactions between first grade stress and temperament, as all three EAS dimensions interacted with first grade stress in predicting externalizing problems. That is, the effects of first grade stress on externalizing problems were heightened if children were more emotional, more active, or less sociable. This finding is interesting because it indicates that first grade stress is not synonymous with a child's characteristics. Rather, stressful school events and the child's stylistic component of behavior both contribute to predicting behavior problems, and a child's temperament may determine in part how the child responds to stressful events: Therefore, temperamental characteristics may function as either protective or risk factors under stressful conditions. As mentioned previously, an important consideration in interpreting the results of this study is that the associations were found with contemporaneous reports: All measures were assessed at a single timepoint, as is typical in stress research (see Johnson, 1986). However, it is encouraging that information from different sources yielded interesting findings in this study. That is, although the data were collected at a single point in time, the use of multiple respondents-parents, children, and teachers--to provide the information reduces possible confounds that may exist when a single source of information is used. In addition, it should be emphasized that the assessment of first grade stress was conducted after the completion of first grade. It may be that the assessment in this study reflects children's overall adjustment to the entire year of first grade. Hence, an important next step will be to examine the relations between first grade stress, temperament, and behavior problems using a longitudinal design. For example, first grade stress should be assessed at several occasions during the school year, in order to distinguish events which require adaptation during entry to elementary school, from events that are an enduring source of stress during the first year of school. In addition, given the relationship between children's perceptions of school stress and behavior problems reported by teachers, attempts to further refine and validate measures of school stress appropriate for young children are encouraged. Most importantly, the long-term impact of school-related stress needs to be investigated, and such analyses will be conducted as the CAP children continue to be assessed yearly during early adolescence. In summary, this study extends research on stress and behavior problems in accordance with recent directions of research on childhood stress research (Corn-

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445

pas, 1987; Johnson, 1986). In a d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y relevant life transition assessment, children's o w n perceptions o f the stress o f the transition were found to affect boys' externalizing p r o b l e m s , and girls' externalizing and internalizing problems. Research c o n f o u n d s were reduced by considering three sources o f information: child (report of school stress), parent (report of school stress, temperament), and teacher (report of b e h a v i o r problems). Such a consideration revealed that children's o w n perceptions o f school stress, as well as parents' perceptions, relate to p r o b l e m s as reported by teachers. Additionally, temperamental d i m e n s i o n s reported by parents interacted with children's perceptions o f stress in predicting teacher reports o f behavior problems.

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Rende, R.D., & Plomin, R. (1991). Child and parent perceptions of the upsettingness of major life events. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32,627-633. Rowe, D., & Plomin, R. (1977). Temperament in early childhood. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41, 150-156. Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598-611. Rutter, M. (1986). Meyerian psychobiology, personality development, and the role of life experiences. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1077-1087. Sandier, I.N., Wolchik, S.A., Braver, S.L., & Fogas, B.S. (1986). Toward the assessment of risky situations. In S.M. Auerbach & A.L. Stolberg (Eds.), Crisis intervention with children and families (pp. 65-83). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Company. Schultz, E.W., & Heuchert, C.M. (1983). Child stress and the school experience. New York: Human Sciences Press. Wertlieb, D., Weigel, C., & Feldstein, M. (1987). Stress, social support and behavior symptoms in middle childhood. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 204-211. Wertlieb, D., Weigel, C., & Feldstein, M. (1989). Stressful experiences, temperament, and social support: Impact on children's behavior symptoms. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 487-503. Wertlieb, D., Weigel, C., Springer, T., & Feldstein, M. (1987), Temperament as a moderator of children's stressful experiences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57. 234-245.