**Focus on understanding the significance of events (det.

Who, What, When, Where, Why, why Differing PoVs: important) - For e.g.: the 95 - Christopher C. (good or Units 1 and 2 bad) - Declaration of Brief history of Xn church: Independence 1) St. Paul brought it north (Greece) (Enlightened or not) Lots of Greek influence since - Napoleon (preserver of

World History

Suppressed by Rome, so Xnity moves west; eventually, mutual acceptance since nothing against Roman rule; Constantine converts (300 AD); Xn and Roman religions = married (festivals, dates) ; Great Schism (East breaks from Westforms Constantinople) 2) Xn community Accepted different sects (how dif. Branches of Xnity formed) 3) Power of Church Serfs protected the Church How nobles, warlords had to bend to will of Church (coalition against other warlords for e.g.) Church became wealthy, powerfulowned lots of land Priestly celibacy = est. 1200 AD b/c ppl were favoring their relatives

Dark Ages (476-1000) 1) Fall of Western Roman Emperor (476 AD) (barbarian invasions, too large to protect) Social, political, economic disarray 2) Invaders, Provincialism 3) Emergence of church Reasons for power: 1) Provided social, political, economic guidance, 2) Unifying point, 3) Appealing message 4) Controlled education Medieval society (unstable: nobody trusted each other) Politics 1) SOCIETY King (decided by amount of power; must keep nobles in fear and happygives land) Nobility (10%; land owned goes only to the oldest, while the other heirs join clergy b/c to divide land = divide power) Serfs (90%, no rights, land, though some were merchants) More land = more $ = more power ****whats the magnum carta? 2) CLERGY Pope (born to rich family, must have support of powerful kings, grants wishes to those who support him) Bishops, Cardinals (from nobility, Pope is chosen from Cardinals) Lower clergy (from Serfs)

 Church was largest land owner (could cultivate tides) Economy 1) Agrarian (rural) Problems = little trade Trade centers were Italian states b/c meet btwn East and West 2) Little infrastructure Poor navigation system, ships = bad 3) Currency = precious metals, used by nobility only Barter system (dependent on good and bad years ) little economic growth Social 1) Focal pt: Church Healthcare, Education (for the rich only; monopoly on knowledge), Spiritual, Charities 2) No social mobility Middle Ages (1000-1517) 1) Increased wealth; geographic growth (kingdoms, princedomes, dukedoms) -- feudalism 2) Two Swords Theory

Renaissance (1350-1600)

3) Philosophy: Humanism: valued life on earth, achieving human potential, being a responsible citizen knowledge, education Challenged Church policies; more secular Recover learning of Ancient Greek, Roman Idea of renaissance man (person who studied everything) (Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo) 4) Rose from city-states of Italy Wealth from trading (since so much trading was done on land as British ruled the waters); Trading brought ideas, books (literature was shared, unlike in N. Europe) Rising middle class (who educated their children) Became a republic (governed by despots-individuals, oligarchies-merchants) 5) Important people: Erasmus (Dutch) : human beings are distinguished by reason, education is important; translated bible (religion = deciphered for the ppl, took Church out of the eqn) Machiavelli (Florentine civil servant)

wrote The Prince; ruthless, pragmatic, realistic (leaders are better: cruel, feared, stingy, deceitful) 6) Northern Renaissance (surprisingly, led by Clergy) More religious than Italy Led by Thomas More; Utopia; communal living 7) Renaissance Art: Compared to Medieval Art: Less religious More realistic Scientific aspect; ancient Rome influence Not just for nobility In North: art was even more realistic, less ideal, more emotion; portrayed everyday events, driven by Church Reform 8) Influence seen today Centralized govt Secular-ism

Protestant Reformation (1517; 95 theses-

1648; Treaty of Westphalia) (concentrated in N.W / N Europe) (Thirty years war 1618-1648 btwn Catholics / Protestants, Bourbons and Habsburgs) 1) Church becomes corrupt Wealth, land; bigamy, divorce; sale of indulgences Digressing from early Christian founders 2) Factors that led to reformation: reflections about family life; questions regarding personal responsibilities and authority; movements of secular authority Printing press (Gutenberg, German) allowed spread of ideas; not limited to church scribes, sowed seeds of revolution 3) Renaissance influence 4) Martin Luther (German, 1483-1546) 95 theses Sola fide, sola scriptura Excommunicated (1521) 5) John Calvin (France, 1509-1564) Led 2nd gen. Protestants - Puritans Geneva Switzerland, Institutes of X'n Religion Sola fide; humility; rigid moral code (no religious toleration) 6) Religious wars Secular authorities (German princes) sided with reform "Protestant" referred to non-Catholic Christians in the West

Pitted: Northern Europe vs. Authority of Rome; Secular Princes vs. Clergy; Local authority vs. Central Power social upheavals (1524-5) by peasants from grievances against taxes, serfdom (inspired by Luther's challenging authority) 7) England and the Reformation 1500s = discontent with excessive power of Papacy in local affairs Church funds = going to Rome Henry 8th : made England Protestant with assent from Parliament 8) Ended with Peace of Augsburg (1555) ("who rules, dictates religion not religious freedom) 9) Catholic Counterreformation Affected by Humanism, desire to return to early X'nity Resulted in: new religious orders (Loyola Jesuit Order, military style); complaints addressed (end of indulgences, more educational places, clergy more educated); defined valid belief as scripture + traditions Southern Europe = a lot more conservative, Renaissance was clamped down here 10) Impact Power was expanded ie. Church power declined b/c excommunication = not as serious anymore due to intro of Protestant sect) Priests were elected Church no longer intermediary btwn indiv. And God Scientific Revolution (End of Renaissance to Enlightenment; 1543 - ) 1) Sparked by Renaissance, Reformation 2) Focused on Astronomy Merged science and technology (which were sep. before) Math, experimentation, inductive reasoning Science sep. from philosophy (unlike Greeks) History viewed as progressive (like Renaissance) 3) Ptolemic Universe (Greek, earth as centre) 4) Copernican (1473-1543) (Polish, heliocentric, protected b/c called it theory) 5) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) (accurate observations, everything revolves around sun except earth) 6) Johan Kepler (1571-1630) (3 planetary laws of motion, elliptical orbits)

Pope Crusades Renaissance --- Scientific Revolution Church cracked down More power for secular states (N. Europe) Reformation More Secularism

7) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)(telescope, scientific method, heliocentric model) 8) Francis Bacon (1561-1626) (sci. method, sensory perception > logic, unbiased interpretation) 9) Renes Descartes (1596 1650) (Cartesian grid system, analytic geometry) 10) Isaac Newton (1642-1727) (universe works like a machine, finalized heliocentrism, 3 laws of motion decoded the universe killing god)

Expansion and Exploration

1) How powerful an empire is: big factor is Geography (e.g. N.W Europe had room for expansion, Ottoman (middle of Empires) could not) 2) Early exploration: Islam and slave trade (spread from Spain, N. Africa to Indonesia) New players emerged: Europe (along w/ China (eventually declined b/c of corruption and got fat, India, Ottoman) Monarchies were first formed (Spain, France formed) Better ships emerged 3) Motives for European Exploration: Geography / Crusades: must bypass Ottomans intermediaries to get Asia Renaissance: curiosity about other lands and peoples Reformation / Counter-Reformation resulted in refugees and missionaries Monarchs seeking new resources / revenues for wars Tech. advancements (ships, cartography, navigation/ astronomy) 4) Portugal explored farthest Entered Africa Purpose: expand power of Portugal through trade; bring Xnty to Muslim Africa 1500s Portugal = centre of trade from east to west (no longer arab merchants of Venice) Prince Henry, the navigator set up navigation school Portugal = global empire (Africa, India, West Coast of Africa) Better maps from trading 5) Spanish became powerful through trade / Spanish conquests 1492, Columbus (sponsored by Spain) discovers new world Spices, gold

 Natives enslaved to mine Started a global race Papal Bull instated (official order form Pope to divide lands btwn Spain and Portugal) Treaty of Tordesillas (West = Spain, East = Portuguese) NEW SPAIN: 1519 Cortes + 600 men vs Aztecs in Mexico o 1531-50 Spanish gained control of N Mexico, and its silver mines 1531- 36 Pizzaro + 200 men vs. Incas (Peru) o Set up Spanish govt, exploited silver mines Economy: Spain became dependent on metals from New World (resulted in high inflation 1560-1600) o Spain borrows money from Europe for wars o Life bad for poor o = decline of Spanish Empire (*got too greedy) Many natives died from conquests (no immunity to disease) 6) Economies of the new world: Provided raw goods for mother country Was outlet for manufactured goods from mother country = economies of dependency Rule for cannot compete with mother country = limited development Traded: Americas (Tomato, Potato), Africa (coffee, horse, sugar cane), Europe (guns, liquor) 7) North American Coast 1001 Vikings (Norway) landed in NFL 1497 John Cabot (Venetian) sponsored by English (landed in NFL) 1519 Ferdinand Magellan (Spain sponsored) circumnavigates globe 1534 Jacques Cartier claimed Quebec 8) English got land, not gold/ silverin the end, got better end of deal English Civil War (1642-1653) 1) Tudor family 1485-1603) (Henry the 8th, Elizabeth I) Consulted parliament, ultimately controlled them

2) 3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

Elizabeth died w/o Heir: Marys son James I (a Stuart) ascends Stuart Monarchy Always in conflict w/ Parliament b/c of money In conflict w/ religious sects (Puritans) Charles I (James son) wanted absolutism like father Refused to ask Parliaments permission for taxes, jailing Enforced Protestanism on Scotland / Ireland = conflict there Needed money to fight, led Charles to become obliged to Parliament, but later disregarded obligation for borrowing money Resulted in Civil war Cavaliers (nobles supporting king) vs. Parliament (Roundheads, lesser nobles) Cromwell (Puritan) led the initiative Charles I executed (after leading armies from Scotland/ Ireland to fight) Cromwell est. new republic military rule He abolishes parliament, becomes lord protector (ie. Dictator, ironic b/c absolutist), wages war on Ireland/ Scotland for their Catholicism 1660 Death of Cromwell Charles II (Charles I son) is new King; Protestant, recognizes Parliament Constitutional monarchy James II, his brother, took throne after Charles death. Catholic from France, therefore always distrusted Glorious Revolutions Parliament invited James II s daughter Mary and William the Orange (Netherlands) to rule (b/c protestant) James II flees (bloodless); Parliament controls throne Philosophers at the time: (products of their time) (Thirty years war) Thomas Hobbes: during civil war (all men born evil, therefore strong govt needed to rule ppl, introduced social contract, equality of all men) (Glorious Revolution) John Locke (ppl are naturally good, born w/ natural rights (life, liberty, property); people have right to overthrow bad govt; majority rule, community is important (security, power in numbers, create more together)) Influenced American Rev. thought

The Enlightenment (1700s)

1) Old Regime: Society divided into 3 (rank is divinely ordained not necessarily connected w/ money): Clergy Nobility Everyone else Absolutist rule 2) Beginning of the new Started in France (w/ philosophes) Accepted empiricism Rationalism 3) People: Voltare Criticized French absolutism, praised English liberty but did not support democracy, favoured Enlightened despots Rousseau Believed in egalitarianism, direct democracy, nurturing sentiment of passion not artificiality of civilization (influenced Romantic movement); man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains ie ppl are good, society makes them bad Francis Bacon: knowledge is power Features Idea of progress (before: ancients, classics > moderns; after: moderns > ancients) Embraced rationalism, empiricism, knowledge, order Justice, truth Equality, liberty, tolerance Duty to self as a human being Natural rights (social contract) ; right to rebellion Secularism (not anti-religion, but anti-dogma) 4) History: a way to learn about humanity / avoid past mistakes; Edward Gibbon believed history was cyclical btwn good and bad 5) Politics: Rousseau (ppl inherently good, but society makes them bad); salon (elite women met, womens sensibility balanced mens reason, women more free in France > England) ; people began to challenge authority of kings 6) Economy: From Feudalism (freedom for rich only, social and econ system) Bad b/c little growth (to grow, must open to public) ToMercantilism (system of granting royal charters for people to sell)

Mercantilism: Bad b/c created monopolies, reduced competition and therefore quality, oligopoly for rich only ToAdam Smith (laissez faire model) Natural laws (supply, demand) Free trade, promote competition made economy a science Role of govt : provide services that are not profitable / or are basic rights (health care, water) Good b/c power to the people, creates competition (increased quality, innovation) King wins b/c more revenue from taxes Although, tariffs = reduces competition, econ growth b/c ties up capital, creates monopolies Before: Classicism (17th- 18th) (admired Roman, Greeks; unity, order) Then Rococo (until 1760) (stressed movement, frivolous, delicate, appealed to senses not mind) Then Neoclassicism (Enlightenment art, until French Rev.) (back to classical themes: civic duty, family, stable, orderly)

7) Art:

8) Enlightened Despotism Powerful people who used principles of Enlightenment (reason, tolerance) to improve govt, economy Significant b/c : weakened role of future monarchies Common aspects: Centralization of power (e.g. single code of law) Laws reflected E.principles: - All ppl were citizens, punishment fitted crime Stricter royal control of religion Strengthening of economy through state intervention E.g: Frederick the Great (Prussia) Reformed legal system, more honest Religious toleration Centralized bureaucracy Agriculture reform: regulates who grows what Abolished serfdom on his property but

 Empire building Increased military force Consolidation of power Class system, serfdom still existed Maria Theresa / Joseph (Austria) Free trade Abolished serfdom Religious tolerance Justice (no torture) Freedom of press but Took power from Diets Nationalized Catholic church Created secret police Conscription Germanization Catherine the Great (Russia) Public education Womens rights Increased civil servants Brought foreigners in to improve infrastructure Encouraged immigration Patron of arts Agriculture reform but Empire building Kept serfdom, torture, secret police Army development Not religiously tolerant Causes of American Revolution 1) Taxes stamp act, tea, sugar - rationale: b/c Brit. protected America during 7 years war 2) Cutting off trade - only Brit. ships allowed to bring goods into port 3) Housing of a professional artmy during peacetime - after Eng. civil war, army not allowed to gather in Eng. (US. wanted this too, though impractical) 4) Quebec Act, 1774

- After fighting btwn Brit + France, Brit = religious tolerance for Catholics - angered Americans (e.g. Puritans) 5) Land British protected for Aboriginals - America wanted it * the ability of the Americans to gain independence = largely through the help of France who had weakened How the Declaration of Independence was Enlightened: 1) Equality, liberty, democracy (for men with property...), Rights (natural rights), free trade, valued justice - highly influenced by Lockes Two Treatises on Government Prerequisites for Revolution 1) Widespread social and economic discontent w/I society - e.g. wheat price high, certain groups getting privileges 2) A theory for political and social change actively present w/I society 3) visible leaders are actively pursuing sig. change 4) existing rulers doubt their abilities to rule effectively

French Revolution
1789< Absolutist Monarchy 1789 1791 Constitutional Monarchy (like British) 1792 1794 Republic 1795- 1799 Military Dictatorship 1799 - Consul (Roman model) Empire Constitutional Monarchy Empire Constitutional Monarchy Republic Empire Republic 1) Class System 1st Clergy (0.5% of pop.) - had privileges; tax exempt - could tax - owned 15-20% of land 2nd Nobility (2%)

- tax exempt; can collect taxes, positions in military, govt 3 Bourgeoisie Merchants Artisans Workers (lives in cities, paid in cash) Peasants (farmers, no pay, earn through crops) (97.5%) - as Bourgeoisie gets $, they buy land yet not tax exempt = conflict, tension
rd

2) Debt: - France = in debt from Louis 16th - Palace of Versailles - Wars (lost lots, 1700s-70slost land, involved in Amer. Rev but got nothing out of it) - Inefficient Taxation (those paid most, had least) - Agrarian Economy (no room for growth) 3) Political - growth of educated middle class (Bourgeoisie) - influenced by ideas of - Locke (social contract, right to revolution,) - Rousseau (social contract, democracy, man is born free but everywhere he is in chains ) - Montesquieu (check and balances, branches of govt, men are equal (wanted republic), ideals of American Rev. - Nobles dislike absolutism (loss of power from Louise 14) - Worries of tax reforms - ideals from Amer. Rev. (right to take arms against tyranny, no taxation w/o rep., all men born free, rep > monarchy) - weak bourbon leadership (louis 15) - Louis 16th = nice but ineffective - marie Antoinette made king look weak 4) Social - no class movement (social mobility) - 1st / 2nd estate had too many privilege 4.1) Estates General (phase 1) - 150 year hiatus (due to debt prob) - proposed tax 1st and 2nd estates (but 2 vs 1) - eventually ;proposed to tax 3rd more. 3rd objected = eventually evicted Tennis Court Oath (id-ed themselves as sovereign power) (1789) - stormed Bastilles (1789) (prisons, sign of Kings power)

- 3rd estate = national Assembly (no more class, everyone can join, end of absolutist France) - masses attack aristocracy (fear of reprisal) - flee abroad, fight back, join rev. (Lafayette) - Louis 16 forces 1st, 2nd est. to join 3rd New Constitutions - New constituion : Declaration of the rights of man - Enlightened b/c: all men equal (end of Feudalism), freedom of speech, religion, freefom from unlawful arrest, freedom of press; law is supreme not king - Civil Constitution of the Clergy: church nationalized (no longer served pope but govt), clergy was elected created friction in lower clergy - the New constitution (1791) - hereditary constitutional monarchy - franchise given to men who paid taxes worth 3 days wages Political Spectrum - right (nobles, clergy wanted old ways) - centre (nobles, bourgeoisie liked revolution, constitutional monarchy) - left (Girondins imprison king, Jacobins execute king, wanted a republic) 4.2) Radical Phase (1792-4) - 1791 Louis 16th tries to flee to Austria, shifts spectrum to Left - Austria, Prussia declare war on France to protect King (Girondin take control of legislature Assembly and declare war on Austria (4, 1792)lasts until 1815 Yet Another New constitution (French Republic) (1792) features - true democracy; all men can vote - Cult of Reason (abolished Roman Catholicism) - no slavery - conscript army (800 000) - builds schools, libs, museums open to public - began revolutionary wars - Jacobin leaders: Robespierre, Marat, Danton (??)

- supported by poor * The revolution eats its children : - marat is assassinated - Danton guillotined - Robespierre arrested by Voncention and guillotined (1794) - The Terror (1793-4) - 40,000 executed (nobles, clergy etc) 4.3) The Directory (1795-9) Thermidarian Rxn - republic - ppl wanted order and France slowed down Rev. - voting taken away from poor - proletariats revolt - Govt saved by NAPOLEON - Napoloen given control of army - won italy wars, Increase wealth, became a rockstar

5) Napoleon I (1804-1814)
- low aristocracy from Corsica (Italian, under French rule) - after defending Directory, rose up in rank 5.1) Early Rise - Italian Campaigns (1796 7) conquered N. Italy (aided by noclose knit community) - suppressed religious orders, ended serfdom, limit noble privilege, looted! - Egyptian campaign (1798) Battle of the Nile; huge failure 5.2) As first Consul - 1799 Coup detat (govt in disarray) - proclaimed 1st consul (Caesars title) - rid elected assembly - appointed senate (got rid of debate) = absolutism! - made consul for life (1802) - proposed laws - tribunate could only debate not vote, legislature could only vote not debate - senate cold veto (but all his co-conspirators) semblance of democracy

Stuff he created: - Created French Bank - Nap. controlled $$ (took power away from Rich) - controlled inflation - Concordat (1801) - made peace w/ pope (did not get back land, $ from Civil Const. of Clergy) - mutual benefit (influence, stability) - Catholicism = national religion, bishops subservient to regime - Lysee system of education (1801) - enrolled nations smartest - trained future bureaucrats - legion of honor (1802) - exeptionalism for soldiers - Napoleonic Code - civil law: personal status, property, acquisition of property - meant to reflect French rev. - one law for all - influenced Haiti, Mexico, Belgium, Poland etc. (Haitian Independence 1792-1804 crushed against ideals !) - The Continental System - goal: isolate Britain (Brit. ships not allowed entry to port) - led to War of 1812 btw. US + Brit 5.3) Major Campaigns - battle of Trafalgar (1805) (established British naval superiority controls trade, communication) - 3rd coalition (Russia, Austria, Britain) (Italy, Danube; Prussia Confederation of the Rhine(1806)French enter BerlinBerlin Decree = Continental system) - 1806- Duchy of Warsaw - 1806 France vs Portugal (did not join C. System protected by Brit., Spain (France wanted to use to get to Portugal) - 1808 Revolt by spain - French eventually pushed out - Russia defied Cont. Sys. - Russian campaign (1812-1813)

- Slash and burn = huge loss - 6 coalition (Brit, Rus, Spain, Portg, etc) - Battle of Dresden (French vict) - Leipzig (loss)
th

- 1814 Nap. abdicates - Louis 18th restored to throne - 1815 7th coalition, Naps 100 days Legacy - incited nationalism - promoted Enlightenment principles - abolishment of serfdom, justice and law, more efficient bureaucracy, proved importance / necessity of diplomacy - resulted in todays European boundaries created a balance of power system