EDU 5813 Hubungan Manusia dalam Pendidikan Tajuk artikel Sexuality Education In Europe: An Overview Of Current Policies

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Nama penulis (penulis-penulis) Rachael Parkera, Kaye Wellingsa and Jeffrey V. Lazarusb London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK; Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Malmo, Sweden

Nama journal, nombor issue dan volume serta tahun diterbitkan, muka surat

Vol. 9, No. 3, August 2009, 227242

Abstrak Comprehensive sexuality education is one of the most important tools to ensure that young people have the information they need to make healthy and informed choices. The aim of this article is, firstly, to outline general issues about sexuality education pertaining to curriculum content, the didactic methods used, agencies involved, political support, coverage and adequacy of provision and barriers to effective sexuality education in Europe. Secondly, the current state of sexuality education in most European Union member states and Norway is described, enabling a Europe-wide comparison of country experiences in the field. This reveals a wide variety of didactic methods and policies that have shaped the provision of sexuality education and the ease and difficulties with which the subject can be implemented, and at what age and in what form it is available.

Pengenalan dan sorotan literatur (Seperti yang terdapat dalam penulisan)

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Comprehensive sexuality education is one of the most important tools to ensure that young people have the information they need to make healthy and informed choices. This requires considering the various inter-related dynamics that influence sexual choices and the resulting motional, mental, physical and social impacts on each persons development (National Guidelines Task Force 2004). The International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF), the largest non-governmental organization working in the field of sexual and reproductive health, has set minimum standards for sexuality education, based on an approach that links safer sex with positive development, empowerment and choice, including sexual expression and fulfilment, representing a shift away from the traditional approach that focuses exclusively on the reproductive aspects of adolescent sexuality and that associates sex with risk-taking and the prevention of pregnancy and infections.

According to the IPPF view, and their interpretation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/k2crc.htm), sexuality education must help young people to acquire accurate information on sexual and reproductive health and rights and to dispel myths; to develop life skills such as critical thinking, negotiation and selfdevelopment skills; and to nurture positive attitudes and values (IPPF 2006, IPPF European Network 2006).

Objektif kajian The aim of this article is: 1. to present 26 country profiles, describing the current state of sexuality education in most European Union member states and Norway.

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2. outline general issues about sexuality education pertaining to curriculumcontent, the didactic methods used, agencies involved, political support, coverage and adequacy of provision and barriers to effective sexuality education.

Metodologi i. This article is based on a sexuality reference guide that we developed as a part of the Sexual Awareness for Europe Project (IPPF European Network 2006). The data were collected and reviewed as of May 2006. ii. To prepare this guide, a common template was prepared that aimed to seek, wherever possible, comparable information for each country, and to present information under standard headings. iii. This was then sent to the IPPF European Network Member Association (non-profit organizations providing information, training, education and health services in the areas of sexual and reproductive health and rights) contact in each of the 26 countries covered by the project. iv. The Member Associations were asked to complete the template and also to provide contact details of other people within their country whom they thought would be able to provide additional information. v. These additional contacts were then sent the template and were asked, where appropriate, for specific information dependent on their area of expertise. In some cases the Member Association consulted their contacts prior to returning the template and so the initial response was comprehensive. vi. The information collected from the templates was then presented in tabular form (Tables 1 and 2), and was also used as the basis for the individual country reports.

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Any gaps in the information provided were filled, where possible, using published literature, policy documents and international comparisons, of the kind produced by UNICEF, the Alan Guttmacher Institute, the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States and the IPPF.

viii.

Routine data were also collected from sources such as Eurostat, the World Health Organization, World Bank and Euro HIV and used to complete Tables 1 and 3.

ix.

All draft tables and reports were sent to the Member Associations for verification, and any necessary amendments made.

x.

Terms used for sexuality education may reflect national ideologies. a. In some countries of Eastern Europe (Slovakia, Poland and Hungary, for example), adoption of the term family life education reflects an emphasis on social structure. b. In other former Eastern bloc countries, and in Belgium, gender enters the description.

xi.

In spite of varying interpretations, the term sexuality education is employed throughout this article to refer to a comprehensive, rights-based approach to the subject that covers both the physical and biological aspects of sexuality as well as emotional and social aspects.

Dapatan dan Perbincangan Dapatan Table 1 shows the contextual differences between the countries studied, enabling a Europe-wide comparison of country experiences in the field. This reveals a wide variety of didactic methods and policies (see Table 2) that have shaped the provision of sexuality

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education across Europe and the ease and difficulties with which the subject can be implemented, and at what age and in what form it is available. Select outcome indicators for coverage, adequacy and effectiveness of sexuality education are presented in Table 3.

Below, the specific country overviews are presented. Country Austria The current provision of sexuality education and report the main challenges and successes Overall, religious influence in schools is strong, and sexuality education has been and remains a controversial subject. Sexuality education was part of Catholic instruction during the nineteenth century, which outlined forbidden acts and behaviours, and emphasized the institution of marriage and the importance of being faithful. Although sexuality education has been mandatory since 1970, only about one-half of all adolescents are thought to be receiving any school-based sexuality education. Generally, sexuality education in Austrian schools focuses on biological issues, with limited discussion of ethical, psychological and social views. The subject starts in elementary school and the main teaching method is formal classroom instruction, with occasional demonstrations. For example, methods of contraception are shown and can be and led by pupils. Belgium Further, there are regional variations in the provision of and funding for sexuality education. Public attitudes towards sex and sexuality education have become

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Belgium has a tradition of subcontracting some governmental responsibilities to civil society organizations, including sexuality education, which has led to different approaches to and regulations governing sexuality education in the different communities in Belgium.

In Flanders, by 2000, sexuality education was included in school objectives, which included comprehensive support for the development of emotional and physical awareness of young people.

In the Francophone and Teutonic communities, sexuality education is implemented by family planning centres administered by the Francophone IPPF Member Association, FLCPF.

Sexuality education both in and out of schools is mainly provided by trained family-planning-centre professionals, but these communities have no outlined objectives for the provision of sexuality education.

Bulgaria

The quality and availability of sexuality education, therefore, are still dependent on individual providers and school policies. Attitudes towards sexuality, homosexuality and pre-marital sex vary between cities and age groups.

For example, well-educated young people and those from large cities are more comfortable and liberal when it comes to discussing sexuality issues than are students from rural areas.

Sexuality education is not mandatory in Bulgaria, and there are no minimum standards for its provision.

The coverage is thought to be insufficient throughout the country, and

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EDU 5813 Hubungan Manusia dalam Pendidikan it is virtually non-existent in rural areas.

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Sexuality education is initiated when the pupils are about 1112 years old and focuses on the male and female reproductive systems, sexually transmitted infections, HIV/AIDS, contraception and violence, and less on emotional aspects.

Cyprus

Classes are not held regularly, and teachers are not adequately trained to deliver sexuality education. Although in recent years attitudes related to young peoples sexuality appear to have become more liberal, conservatism is still the norm and gender inequity is common.

The church has a strong influence, and young people in Cyprus have limited knowledge of sexuality and access to sexual and reproductive health services (Kouta-Nicolaou 2003). 232 R. Parker et al.

Since 2002, pilot sexuality education programmes have been implemented in six high schools, provided by schoolteachers, to pupils aged 1415.

However, no minimum standards for the provision of sexuality education have been developed and, as of 2006, no expansion of the pilot project is envisaged.

The Ministry of Education has no set strategy regarding sexuality education, and the main obstacles are lack of teacher-training and lack of funding.

Czech Republic

There are, furthermore, discrepancies in access to sexuality education between urban and rural areas. Attitudes towards the sexuality of young people in the Czech Republic

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are generally tolerant, but they vary depending upon peoples religious beliefs. Some opponents of sexuality education maintain that the family should be the institution providing young people with sexuality information. Sexuality education is mandatory in the Czech Republic, with no optout clauses. It is taught by teachers within the curriculum of other subjects (biology, citizenship and family education). Minimum standards for sexuality education have been defined by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, covering all topics and involving health centres and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). In general, the provision of sexuality education is thought to be consistent and adequate according to the age range of the pupils. However, some observers believe that the most important sources of information on sex for young people are still parents, books, television and other mass-media sources (Zverina 1997). Denmark Attitudes towards the sexuality of young people are relaxed, based on individual choice for both men and women regarding sexuality and sexual health. Denmark was the first country to legalize contraception for those under the age of sexual consent and to guarantee confidentiality. Sexuality education is mandatory and usually begins in the seventh grade, when the pupils are 1213 years old. It is often combined with biology and Danish lessons, and parents

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Lessons cover information on biological formation, sexually transmitted infections and contraception as well as emotional issues, such as shyness, and puberty.

Minimum standards for sexuality education are defined in a regulation set by the Ministry of Education.

Challenges include cultural diversity in urban areas, where teachers have to give greater consideration to ethnic minority cultures.

Furthermore, teachers are obliged to provide sexuality education, but have often not received the training to do so.

Estonia

Attitudes towards the sexuality of young people in Estonia have become more open-minded in recent years. For example, the majority of people appear to support reproductive choice, such as the rights of women and couples to decide if, when and how many children to have.

Sexuality education begins when pupils are around the age of 10. The main focus is on psycho-social aspects and personal relationships.

The quality of sexuality education in schools varies greatly and depends on the skills and attitudes of the individual teachers, as well as the attitude of the school administration.

NGOs play an important role in providing sexuality education in Estonia.

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Sex Education 233 Challenges include insufficient teacher-training, a lack of comprehensive teaching and study materials, and not enough time being allocated to sexuality education in the curriculum.

Moreover, different sexuality education topics are not satisfactorily covered among each of the age groups.

Finland

Attitudes towards sexuality education are liberal in Finland. Schools, local health personnel and ministerial authorities cooperate in providing sexuality education and information about sexual health issues for young people.

Religion does not have a strong influence in Finland. More than 80% of Finns belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, which adopts a neutral stance on most sexuality issues and contributes to sexuality education in connection with confirmation classes at the age of 15.

In 2001, sexuality education again became mandatory for some grades.

Some elements of sexuality education are provided as early as in kindergarten, and classes ensure a balance between the biological and emotional aspects according to the age range of the pupils.

Many observers believe that sexuality education in Finland is regionally consistent and adequate with regard to population density.

France

The general public in France accepts sexuality education and recognize young people as sexual beings.

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However, conservative and religious groups, particularly Catholic groups, regularly protest against sexuality education in schools.

Sexuality education is mandatory in France and is provided in both primary and secondary school, beginning at around the age of six.

Parents are sometimes involved. The 2003 regulation stated that sexuality education must integrate biological knowledge and psychological, emotional, social, cultural and ethical dimensions of sexuality.

Sexuality education is provided by teachers and health staff and many NGOs are involved in provision, mainly religious organizations, HIV/AIDS agencies and the French IPPF Member Association.

Guidelines for sexuality education in France are generally good, but public financing for provision, teaching materials and professional training are thought to be inadequate.

Germany

Attitudes towards sexuality education in Germany are generally liberal.

According to the Pregnancy and Family Aid Act (SFHA ndG), sexuality education is not seen as a human right, but as an effective instrument to avoid unplanned pregnancies.

However, due to declining birth rates the federal government is increasingly committed to support childbearing, while anti-choice groups are said to be using the changing political environment to intensify their activities.

The minimum standards for the provision of sexuality education are

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regulated at state level, and the quality and availability varies from state to state. Sexuality education is mandatory in Germany, and there are no optout clauses. Although sexuality education is required to be taught in a holistic way, teachers often think of the subject exclusively as knowledge of biology and the human body. As 19% of the population are citizens with migrant backgrounds, issues around cultural diversity need to be integrated into sexuality education.234 R. Parker et al. Greece Historically, there has been controversy surrounding sexuality education in Greece and the subject is politically contentious. Religious influence is strong in Greece as 98% of Greeks describe themselves as of Orthodox affiliation. Sexuality education has been mandatory in Greece since 1995, and is taught to pupils from the age of six. Schoolteachers, school nurses and the Family Planning Association of Greece are responsible for its provision, and the focus is on biological aspects, anatomy and relationships. Various teaching methods are used, including peer education and the use of visuals and the mass media. Some observers consider Greek sexuality education highly insufficient and it has been stated that there is a need both for intensification of nformation on sexual contraception, sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS, and improvement of the quality and

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specialization of this information (Agrafiotis and Mandi 1997). Hungary Official views in Hungary are said to be pro-natalist, and the perception that sexuality education teaches indecent lifestyles or ideas still exists among some groups. Hungary has a history of inadequate and insufficient provision of sexuality education, to a large extent due to a lack of trained staff. Today, the Hungarian National Curriculum mandates the teaching of hygiene in schools, which includes education for family life and sexuality education. According to a ministerial decree, school doctors and nurses are to teach this curriculum. However, many institutions are still not thought to be adequately prepared to teach it and the provision of sexuality education is considered inadequate by most observers (Batar 2002). Iceland The majority of people in Iceland have liberal attitudes towards the sexuality of young people, and there is generally a positive attitude towards sexuality education. However, Iceland has the lowest average age at first intercourse in Europe (see Table 3), which has been attributed, among other things, to cultural norms in Icelands society regarding childbearing and limited sexuality education (Bender, Geirsson, and Kosunen 2003). The Ministry of Education provides a framework for sexuality education in schools, which stipulates that the focus should be on both biological and psychosocial aspects.

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The subject has been mandatory since 1975 with no opt-out clauses, and it is provided by schoolteachers and school nurses.

Classes usually start at the age of 11 or 12, although some issues are introduced earlier.

The provision of sexuality education in Iceland varies considerably between schools and often depends on individual teachers.

Ireland

Until the second part of this century, the Roman Catholic Church controlled discourse on issues related to morality in Ireland, and sex was largely a taboo subject.

From the mid-1960s, however, the subject of sexuality slowly began to expand in public discourse.

Today, there is a general acceptance of the need for comprehensive sexuality education within Irish schools.

Sexuality education has been mandatory since 2003 and it is required as a subject at senior-school level (from the age of 12).

Teachers have the ultimate responsibility for Sex Education 235 provision, although external agencies are sometimes involved.

Teaching methods vary from visual aids and guides to more formal lessons.

However, implementation is patchy and the programme content allows for adjusting what is included in lessons.

This discretionary aspect means that comprehensive sexuality education is not available to all pupils.

Italy

The Catholic Church has a strong influence in Italy, and the Vatican

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influences some political decisions and social policy via the Christian Democrat Party. Both public opinion and official attitudes in Italy tend to be traditional and moralistic, and sexuality education is a highly controversial subject. There are no official laws regarding sexuality education in Italy and it is still not mandatory, although a bill was passed in 1991 to ensure that sexuality education would be incorporated into biology lessons. Any sexuality education that is provided has a biological focus and is taught in a formal classroom setting. Private family planning associations are involved in its provision, although not in an official capacity. The provision of sexuality education in Italy is reportedly inadequate. The situation varies greatly between northern and southern Italy, and very little official data are available regarding the south of the country. Latvia There is a long history of sexuality issues being highly taboo in Latvia (Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States 2005), and it is sometimes said that there was no sex in the Soviet times. Attitudes towards the sexuality of young people in Latvia are generally negative and unsupportive, and sexuality education was considered to be a family matter before 2005. In 2006 sexuality education was integrated into social sciences, which

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includes a very broad spectrum of social, ethical, political and economic issues, with only a very small element of health education. NGOs are involved in the provision of sexuality education in Latvia, in particular in the provision of peer-education programmes, but the organizations have limited capacity and insufficient funds to meet demands. It is widely held that sexuality education in Latvia is inadequate and highly dependent on the financial and human resources of each school. Lithuania Sexuality education is currently a controversial topic in Lithuania. A small but vocal group of conservative and religious organizations, who are influential in the government, strongly oppose the promotion of sexuality education in schools (Lazarus 2005). In May 2005 the Board of General Education passed sexuality education guidelines, but these are considered to be overly conservative, since the working group that developed them was made up mainly of anti-choice Catholic organizations. Sexuality education is incorporated into the curricula of biology, ethics and physical culture, and formal teaching methods are most commonly used. Provision of sexuality education can be described as uneven and depends on the attitude and planning of individual teachers. The United Nations has, furthermore, criticized Lithuanian adolescents lack of access to reproductive health services and

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information (United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2006). In 2004, most youth-friendly health services, which could have filled some gaps 236 R. Parker et al. in the inadequate provision of sexuality education, were closed after Catholic Church condemnation of them. Luxembourg Luxembourg is a predominantly Catholic country, and people are not thought to be very open-minded concerning the sexuality of young people. Sexual and relationship education has been mandatory for 1319 year-olds since the early 1970s. Minimum standards for sexuality education are defined by the Ministry of Education and classes begin in primary school at the age of six, integrated into citizenship, biology and religion classes. Schoolteachers are responsible for its provision, and teaching methods include formalclassroom teaching, role-plays and workshops. NGOs can be invited to provide seminars. The provision of sexuality education in Luxembourg is thought to be patchy and inadequate. Any variation is mainly influenced by the The Netherlands goodwill of individual teachers and their feelings about the topics. Human rights and individual liberties play an important role in Dutch society, and attitudes towards young peoples sexuality are permissive. Further, the media are largely supportive and informative with regard to sexual matters.

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Dutch schools are mandated to cover biological aspects of sexuality education, but there is no legislation relating to wider aspects.

The Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports is responsible for sexuality education policy in cooperation with other ministries and NGOs.

It is acknowledged that both physical aspects and emotional development should be covered, although in practice not all topics are discussed.

Sexuality education starts by the age of 11 or 12. One of the main challenges is religious convictions opposing sexuality education, mainly in the Dutch bible belt.

There has also been a rise in migrant populations. A perceived increase in overall risk-taking behaviour among young people is thought to reflect waning political commitment for the

Norway

subject. Norway fosters a liberal social and moral climate and was one of the first countries to pass a law criminalizing discrimination on sexual grounds.

The government fully supports family planning, and general public attitudes towards the sexuality of young people are positive.

Sexuality education has been mandatory in Norway since the 1970s and the government has set minimum standards for its provision.

Sexuality education is mainly integrated into the curriculum of biology lessons.

While schoolteachers are responsible for its provision, the topics

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deemed more difficult are often dealt with by school nurses, although several NGOs are also involved. All main biological, psychosocial, ethical and personal relationship topics are covered. Teaching methods vary enormously and some teachers split classes into gender-segregated groups. Coverage and adequacy vary between schools, mainly because policy is vague and teachers tend to make individual decisions on Poland what is taught. The influence of the Roman Catholic Church, particularly after the collapse of Communism in 1989, makes the implementation of sexuality education very difficult. Sex Education 237 Family planning services are available, but religious and cultural pressures result in uneven distribution. Sexuality education is known as Education for family life. It is now obligatory for schools to provide it, but not for students to attend the classes. Many teaching methods are used, including peer education, lectures and workshops, depending on the individual teacher. All sexuality education textbooks present the Catholic Churchs view of human sexuality employing non-scientific language, and the government has made no attempt to provide more neutral information. In practice, sexuality education is thought to often be left out or implemented selectively, and some observers claim that [i]n Poland, no sexuality education whatsoever exists (Van Lancker 2002).

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EDU 5813 Hubungan Manusia dalam Pendidikan Portugal

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In rural regions, sexuality education is still a taboo topic and financing is poor. The modernization of Portugal in recent decades has resulted in a more open society, where the Catholic Church is more a symbolic and cultural reference for the majority of the population than an effective influence on sexual attitudes and behaviours, as evidenced by the popular vote in 2007 to permit abortion in the country.

Acceptance of sexuality education is increasing among parents, young people, teachers and health professionals.

Official policies, however, do not always correspond to this increased acceptance.

Sexuality education is mandatory in Portugal but it is defined in very vague terms.

It is implemented across the entire school curriculum, and there are unofficial guidelines that propose a holistic approach towards sexuality education and sexual and reproductive health.

Schoolteachers, health professionals and some NGOs are responsible for its provision.

In practice, provision has remained limited and often of poor quality, partly due to the lack of an official programme, and not all young

Slovakia

people have access to it. Slovaks are generally traditionalists, but attitudes vary by region and religion.

In cities, young people behave more like their Western European peers and have more open attitudes, while people with strong religious beliefs prefer to advocate abstinence before marriage and

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the Catholic Church, which has a strong presence in the country, even wants to abolish sexuality education in schools (David 1999). The official guidelines for sexuality education were developed at the Ministry of Education, and the subject has been mandatory since 1996. Schoolteachers and sometimes nurses and gynaecologists are responsible for its provision, and it is provided as a part of formal classroom teaching. Sexuality education is taught as part of either religion or ethics classes, but topics such as homosexuality and sexual assault are almost universally ignored. The provision of sexuality education in Slovakia is inconsistent and inadequate, and in rural areas the subject is approached from a very Spain conservative perspective. Spain is a Catholic country with strong regional cultural differences, which impacts on the provision of sexuality education. The Catholic Church has influenced issues such as contraception, abortion and sexuality education. Nevertheless, there is some degree of public acceptance of sexuality education in Spain. 238 R. Parker et al. The Spanish government has no explicit sexual and reproductive health policy, and there are no set minimum standards for the provision of sexuality education. Nor is the subject mandatory in schools. A wide range of agencies are involved where it is provided, and their perspectives range from those

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that promote abstinence to those working from a wider emotional approach. Sexuality education in Spain is said to be inadequate and almost nonexistent, particularly in rural areas. The majority of young Spanish people initially learn about sexual matters from their family, the media and their peers. Recently, however, some observers have noted an increase in official Sweden commitment to sexuality education. Sweden has a reputation for being an open society that is free from sexual repression. The state assumes a major responsibility for social issues, and a broad consensus exists on young peoples rights to adequate and objective information and services regarding sexuality and reproduction. In 1955 Sweden became the first European country to establish compulsory sexuality education in all schools, and there are no optout clauses. Minimum standards are set by the Swedish National Agency for Education, which highlights that sexuality education should cover anatomy, gender and relationship management. Provision usually begins at the age of 1213. NGOs are also involved in provision. Nevertheless, the provision of sexuality education in Sweden is said to be patchy but where it exists, it is of a fairly high standard. No information exists regarding regional variations between rural and

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EDU 5813 Hubungan Manusia dalam Pendidikan urban areas. United Kingdom

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The 1980s saw a reversal of the liberal trends of the 1960s and 1970s in the United Kingdom.

Attempts were made to restrict access to contraception, to tighten abortion laws and to limit acceptance of homosexuality.

Public opinion surveys, however, suggest that the majority of the population support sexuality education. In recent years, as sexual health in the general population deteriorated, more of a focus has been directed to the subject of sexuality education, both within schools and through public campaigns.

England has the highest teenage birth rate in Western Europe (see Table 3).

In England, the government launched the Teenage Pregnancy Strategy in 1999 with the aim of halving under-18 conception rates by 2010.

The National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV from 2001 set out an implementation plan for improving sexual health, and the 2004 white paper Choosing Health included plans furthering this aim.

Currently, school education covers basic biological aspects of sexuality education, but it is neither compulsory nor of uniform quality between schools (Department of Health 2006).

Discussion Perbincangan

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How is sexuality education delivered in Europe?

Curriculum content The content of sexuality education varies greatly within, as well as between, countries. In many cases, it is difficult to get a clear picture of what is included in each country. To illustrate this, it is helpful to look at the part of the school curriculum in which the subject is taught and the focus it has. Some observers believe that sexuality education should be integrated across all school subjects, yet this is still rare in the European Sex Education 239 countries (IPPF 2006). Given that many of these observers contributed data to this article, the country overviews could be considered as overly critical at times, and triangulating the findings with teacher/parent organizations and government officials responsible for the subject is essential for a full view of the situation.

In many countries, sexuality education is time-tabled in biology lessons, which reflects an emphasis on health-related aspects of the subject and a weaker or even no focus on personal relationships. Increasing the focus on relationships signals that the content goes beyond a simple mechanistic coverage of biological facts and includes psychosocial aspects of sexuality. Research shows that young people welcome this and are critical of too much of a focus on biological and physical aspects of sexuality education (Milburn 1995; Ogden and Harden 1999; Macdowall et al. 2006).

In some Eastern European countries, sexuality education has been influenced by national ideologies which is evident in the adoption of the term Family Life Education. This reflects an emphasis on reproductive aspects of sexuality and on social structure. Related to this, trends in

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key issues tend to impact on the way sexuality is referred to over time. In Portugal, for example, concern about HIVand AIDS in the 1990s coincidedwith the renaming of the Programme for Personal Development to the Programme for Health Education.

Didactic methods employed Methods used to teach sexuality education vary greatly from country to country from traditional, formal classroom teaching to peer education. Materials used range from visual aids, the massmedia, videos, CD-ROMs and the theatre to the Internet, which is increasingly employed for educational purposes. While a traditional didactic approach to sexuality education remains most common, studies show that pupils have a preference for a more interactive approach (Milburn 1995; Ogden and Harden 1999; Macdowall et al. 2006).

Agencies responsible for provision The most common pattern across European countries is for schoolteachers to provide sexuality education, but voluntary and NGOs are often brought into schools to teach sexuality education or supplement the teaching, sometimes even on their own premises. Their scope is frequently comprehensive and they can, for example, provide sexual health seminars, organize peer education or campaigns and provide counselling. Bringing in NGO representatives is sometimes employed by the statutory agencies to distance themselves from the subject.

Health professionals are rarely involved, with the exception of some countries that rely on nurses (e.g. Hungary); although this has benefits in diverting the subject away from purely health-related concerns, a case can be made for a wider role for health professionals in terms of recognizing problems among young people such as indications of physical or sexual abuse, pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections. Furthermore, pupil visits to health settings outside

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of schools are not common, although evidence shows that sexuality education is more effective when it involves links with local sexual health services (Health Development Agency 2001).

The government ministry or department responsible for developing sexuality education policy is a reflection of the countrys approach to the topic. The Ministry of Education is the government department most commonly involved, often in cooperation with another department (e.g. Youth and Sports in the Czech Republic, and Social Affairs and Health in Finland). 240 R. Parker et al. Lessons learned: factors that hinder or enhance the provision of sexuality education Coverage, adequacy and effectiveness of sexuality education are difficult to measure. However, cross-national comparisons reveal common factors influencing the implementation of sexuality education, such as urban and rural differences, which appear to have an important impact on sexuality education. In more sparsely populated countries (such as Greece), facilities seem to be concentrated in large urban areas. Differences related to religious variations are also common, an example being the bible belt of the Netherlands, where sexuality education in schools encounters local opposition due to strong religious convictions among the public and policy-makers. Further, in Poland religious and cultural pressures cause an uneven distribution of sexuality education, which is already greatly restricted. Cultural diversity is another factor influencing access to sexuality education. The growth of migrant populations, for example in France, Germany and the Netherlands, has provided the impetus for increased efforts to address this issue in sexuality education.

To varying degrees, the subject is controversial virtually everywhere and there is thus Considerable scope for sharing lessons learned between European countries, particularly with regard to the following factors:

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Reconciling political and religious views, which remains difficult in many countries. This can be done, for example, by involving faith-based organizations in the development and implementation of sexuality education.

The need for media advocacy. In some countries a more proactive stance is needed by those involved in policy and the provision of sexuality education in order to engage with the media on sexuality education.

The need for greater synergy and joint action between countries; that is, crossborder or just border cooperation.

Positive effects of negative publicity. Where there is a robust defence of sexuality education interventions or materials, criticism of sexuality education programmes can have positive outcomes and lead to greater public awareness.

Crisis intervention. Media attention on adverse sexual health issues and trends, an example being the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the 1980s and 1990s, has sometimes helped to prioritize sexual health on the public agenda.

Sharing expertise. The IPPF, the ASTRA Central and Eastern European Womens `Network for Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights, and the European NGOs for Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights, Population and Development (EuroNGOs), for example, regularly share their expertise with each other andrelevant partners.

Using and influencing national regulations and guidelines. Providers of sexuality education can use and influence national regulations governing the provision of the subject to make the case for sexuality education, particularly in countries where it is not mandatory.

Sustaining sexuality education programmes. A favourable climate is necessary, but not sufficient, for sexuality education programmes to be effective. Funding and

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political support for programmes must be sustained for the continuous effectiveness of sexuality education to be ensured.

Implikasi dan cadangan memperbaiki pengurusan institusi pendidikan Berdasarkan artikel di atas, pendidikan boleh didefinasikan dalam pelbagai bentuk. Pendidikan seks adalah suatu istilah digunakan untuk menjelaskan pendidikan mengenai anatomi seksual, pembiakan seksual, perhubungan seks, dan aspek-aspek lain kelakuan seksual manusia.

Dalam artikel di atas, kita boleh melihat pendidikan seks di barat juga mendapat tentangan daripada pelbagai pihak terutama bagi penganut agama Katolik. Contohnya di Peancis, pada awalnya mereka menganggap pendidikan seks di sekolah adalah tidak sesuai. Perkara ini dianggap sesuatu yang sulit untuk dibincangkan secara umum.

Kurikulum pendidikan seks di barat juga berbeza-beza antara satu negara dengan negara yang yang lain. Terdapat negara yang hanya memperkenalkan pendidikan seks secara dalam bentuk pskolagi, angota badan dan pandangan sosial sahaja, Terdapat juga

Di Malaysia yang mempunyai majoriti penganut agama Islam, juga menentang

Pendidikan Seks di Barat

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Di barat, pendidikan seks bukan sahaja diperkenalkan dengan menggunakan silibus pelajaran berpandukan buku dan bahan bacaan kerana mereka menganggap perlunya kepada pendedahan tentang praktikal perhubungan seks yang betul. Dengan peruntukan yang dimiliki, mereka menghuraikan pengajaran seks dengan menampilkan model yang berbogel untuk melakonkan teknik-teknik hubungan kelamin yang betul supaya ketelusan pelajaran seks diperkenalkan kepada masyarakat mereka. Malah kelas senilukis di Perancis pernah menampilkan seorang model wanita jelita yang berbogel di depan khalayak untuk dilukis para mahasiswa kerana itulah juga ketelusan yang ada dalam sistem pendidikan mereka. Seorang pensyarah bersara dari Oxford University mencadangkan agar pendidikan seks di sekolah sepatutnya lebih menjurus kepada pembelajaranhands-on dimana pelajar diberi tunjuk ajar cara-cara untuk menyayangi satu sama lain [Edu. Guardian Co. UK news 9 Mei 2003].

Kenyataannya, setelah diperkenalkan pelajaran seks di sekolah-sekolah dan kolej, kadar penyakit dan kematian akibat berpunca dari gejala seks meningkat mendadak. Ini kerana berkemungkinan setelah didedahkan di kelas, pelajar-pelajar akan mempraktikkannya di luar kelas. Kesannya mereka semakin 'maju' mengamalkan seks bebas kerana masyarakat barat sememangnya tidak bermoral dan menyanjung tinggi kebebasan bertingkahlaku. Satu kajian terbaru yang diadakan di UK mendedahkan kehamilan dikalangan remaja adalah yang tertinggi di kawasan yang giat aktif dan agresif dalam mempromosi pendidikan seks [LifeSiteNews.com 15 Mac 2004].

Bagaimana pula dengan sistem pendidikan kita? Mungkin jika kita juga ghairah hendak mengikut barat. Mungkinkah vcd lucah yang sebelum ini dianggap 'sampah' akan menjadi 'buku teks dan rujukan'? Pelakon-pelakon adegan ranjang akan lebih dikenali di kalangan pelajar berbanding para ilmuwan, ulamak dan pemimpin?. Jikalau pelajaran seks yang dilaksanakan di

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barat itu berjaya mengubah kehidupan seks mereka, pastinya ia boleh dijadikan model perlaksanaan di Malaysia. Namun, hakikatnya semakin diajar semakin melampau. Tidakkah di Malaysia juga akan terjadi perkara yang sama? Contoh lain, di sebuah negara jiran ketika kempen seks selamat menggunakan kondom diperkenalkan, industri kondom menjadi semakin maju. Jika pelajaran seks diperkenalkan di Malaysia, kemungkinan besar kelas-kelas tuisyen seks akan mendapat sambutan yang hebat. Sambutan pastinya akan lebih menggalakkan jika teknik pengajaran dipelbagaikan dan akan berlaku persaingan. Sudah tentu pada waktu itu kelas tuisyen juga ibarat kondom. Bagaikan cendawan tumbuh lepas hujan.

Persoalannya, adakah pendidikan seks yang bakal diketengahkan dianggap penyelesaian menyeluruh masalah seksual? Adakah gejala sosial dikalangan remaja sekarang disebabkan oleh ketidaktahuan mereka tentang seks atau mungkin terlebih tahu?

BIBLIOGRAFI

Jaafar Muhammad (1996). Kelakuan Organisasi. Leeds Publication, Kuala Lumpur Kreitner, R. (1995). Management (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Noor Hashimah Hj. Hassan. 2000. Perkaitan antara gaya kepimpinan pengetua dengan tahap motivasi guru: Tinjauan di sekolah-sekolah menengah daerah Segamat. Projek Sarjana Pendidikan. Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi.

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Ololube, N. P. (2004). Professionalism: An Institutional Approach to Teachers Job Effectiveness in Nigerian Schools. Paper Presented at the Seventh International LLinE Conference, September 23-25, 2004.

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Reis, H., Sheldon, K., Gable, S., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26,pp. 419435.

Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63, pp. 397427.

Tengku Sarina Aini Tengku Kasim (2006), Motivasi Pelajar Melalui Pendekatan Psikologi alam Kaedah Pengajaran Menuju Pembangunan Holistik, dalam

Prosiding Seminar Kebangsaan Pengajian Umum, Skudai: Penerbitan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. h. 300.

Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie (2001). Pentadbiran Pendidikan. Penerbit Fajar Bakti. Shah Alam.

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