JBS Vol 18 Number 1-2 Year 2008

JOURNAL OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
Chief Editor Rukhsana Kausar Editorial Board Najma Najam Yasmin N. Farooqi Naumana Amjad Rafia Rafiq Shazia Khalid Afsheen Masood Afifa Anjum Shahnila Tariq
Consulting Editors
Charles D. Spielberger,USA John Pickering, UK Ronald P. Rohner, USA Sandra Neil, Australia Iftikhar-Un-Nisa Hassan, Pakistan Anna Laura Comunian, Italy Christian Rossangel, Germany Chris Fife-Schaw, UK Thomas Oakland, USA Graham Powell, UK Evanthia Lyons, Ireland Irene Frieze, USA Ana Guil Bozal, Spain Herbert H. Krauss, USA Hamid Sheikh, Pakistan Abdul Khaleque, USA Ghazala Rehman, UK Nagina Parveen, Pakistan Ryutaro Takahashi, Japan Paul M. Salkovskis, UK Rafia Hassan, Pakistan Regina Pauli, UK Rosalind Kalb, USA Jorg Huber, Germany Illias E. Kourkoutas, Greece Istiqpmah Wibowo, Indonesia Seemeen Alam, Pakistan Lisa Firestone, USA Ashraf Khan, USA Choc Hui, Canada Naseema Vawda, South Africa Roswith Roth, Austria Alex Wood, UK Mah-Nazir Riaz, Pakistan Daniel J. Christie, USA
Aims and Scope The Journal of Behavioural Sciences is an official publication of the Department of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan and is published biannually since 1990. It is interdisciplinary journal and the contents include work on a wide range of topics in Psychology and allied disciplines. JBS aims to bring together researches from different specializations in Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Education, Gender Issues, Organizational Behaviour, Life Sciences and Psychiatry. Though JBS prefers papers based on empirical work, review articles and case studies are also considered for publication. JBS has double blind peer reviewing policy. JBS is cited & indexed in EBSCO HOST Annual subscription rate: 500 Pak Rupee and 30US$ (for foreign subscribers) (Price does not include postal charges)
Journal of Behavioural Sciences (JBS)

Volume 18 Number 1-2 2008 Contents Original articles Using Different Feedbacks in Formative Evaluation and Their Effects on Achievement in Iranian Elementary School Students Naser Shirbagi and Bahman Kord Executive Cognitive Functioning, Visual Motor Functioning and Working Memory Deficits in Schizophrenics Najma Najam and Fatima Abdullah Factors Influencing Customers Willingness to Buy in the Context of PC Peripherals Nadim Jahangir, Shubhankar Shil and Noorjahan Parvez Normative Beliefs about Aggression and Retaliation: Association with Aggressive Behaviour and Anticipatory Self-censure Naumana Amjad and Martin Skinner Psychosocial Correlates of Excessive Computer Use among Pakistani Adolescents Shazia Khalid and Afsheen Masood 1
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Journal of Behavioural Sciences Vol. 18 Number 1-2 2008
Using Different Feedbacks in Formative Evaluation and Their Effects on Achievement in Iranian Elementary School Students
Dr. Naser Shirbagi* Department of Education, University of Kurdistan, Iran Bahman Kord Islamic Azad University,Mahabad Branch Evaluation is one of the activities, which has a pivotal role in the process of teaching and learning in any system of education. One essential and substantial aspect of evaluation is formative evaluation. This type of evaluation which has been almost neglected by teachers is used to improve and enhance the achievement of the learners. Even though, the teachers employ this kind of evaluation, they rarely attempt to correct or improve the shortcomings of the students learning through feedback. Given this, the current study aims to address the effect of various methods of feedback including oral, written and a mixture of the two i.e. oral-written feedbacks on science subjects achievement. The sample consisting of 140 fifth grade primary school students' subjects was divided into three experimental and one control groups. The validity and reliability of the instruments was calculated in the shape of pretest and posttest, and 11 formative tests were run for 11 weeks. Findings of this research indicated that there was a significant difference between those formative evaluations which involve various method feedbacks including oral, written and mixed (oral-written) and those lacking these feedbacks. Also there was a significant difference between the students who received written feedback and those who received only oral feedback concerning science subjects achievement. The implications of study are discussed and suggestions are given for using feedback in a constructive way to improve achievement. Key words: Formative evaluation, Feedback, oral and written feedback, Achievement in Science
*correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Naser Shirbagi, Department of Education, Faculty of Arts, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran, Postal Code: 66177-14461, Tel: +98 -8716622709/+98-9181711855. E-mail: NShirbagi@uok.ac.ir
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There are many factors that can contribute to improving the learning experiences of students. Those that are of interest here include: formative evaluation and various methods of providing feedback. Long-standing theory and research suggest the critical role that formative evaluation can play in student learning. With roots in Tylers curriculum rationale (1949) Skinners behaviorism and programmed instruction (1953, 1960) Glasers seminal work in criterion referenced instruction and testing (Glaser, 1963) Blooms concept of Mastery Learning (Bloom, Hastings & Madaus, 1971) Ramaprasad (1983) and Sadler's (1989) works, the use of evaluation in guiding instruction has long been advocated. Classroom evaluation that supports student learning, or formative evaluation, is strongly favored in current educational literature. Formative evaluation has been championed by evaluation specialists (e.g., McTighe & OConnor, 2005; Stiggins & Chappuis, 2005) and it is increasingly endorsed by professional organizations (e.g., Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 2003; Miller, 2005). According to Scriven (1991) formative evaluation at its most basic, is an assessment of efforts prior to their completion for the purpose of improving the efforts. It is a technique that has become well developed in the education and training evaluation literature. Several recent definitions detail the characteristics and elements of formative evaluation (Assessment Reform Group, 2002; Cowie & Bell, 1999, Center for Educational Research & Evaluation, 2005; Crooks, 2001; Leahy, Lyon, Thompson & Wiliam, 2005; Shepard, 2005; Torrance & Pryor, 2001). In synthesizing these, formative evaluation is described as a composite practice, involving: a) clearly communicated learning goals and evaluative criteria, b) varied approaches to elicit information about learning, including questioning and observation, c) balanced and descriptive feedback in varied forms, d) the adjustment of teaching and learning as a result of the evaluation, and e) the active involvement of students. The element of feedback to students is central to the concept. There is considerable focus on giving feedback to students. Various
FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
methods of feedback are discussed, such as comment-only marking by teachers (Wiliam, Lee, Harrison & Black, 2004) oral feedback offered informally and responsively during classroom activities (Bell & Cowie, 2001) written and computer generated feedback that is tailored to specific errors (Thissen-Roe, Hunt, & Minstrell, 2004). While these studies do not give indication of the relative merits of these different methods of feedback, positive consequences are generally seen. Feedback is described as an effective means of scaffolding learning (Hodgen & Marshall, 2006), and encouraging greater student autonomy (Kirkwood, 2000). However, feedback is rarely considered in isolation from other elements of formative evaluation, and only one study attributes increased student achievement specifically to feedback. Hickey and Zuicker (2005) encouraged greater use of feedback by students and pointed out that the improved learning outcomes over time appear to be mostly due to continued enhancement of participation in the feedback conversations (p.298). Improving length and quality of the feedback and the successful outcome of the teaching can, therefore, be associated with the teachers pedagogical skill. Several studies conclude that teachers need guidance in this area. For example, Yung (2001) argues that teachers in Hong Kong should be provided with professional development on the use of feedback to motivate students and support learning. Stokking, Van der Schaff, Jaspers, and Erkens (2004) in their survey of evaluation practices in the Netherlands, noted a wide range in the type, form, and quality of feedback, and they observed that some of the reported practices were less than ideal, especially for learning purposes. Also with evidence of cultural differences in how learning and evaluation are perceived (e.g., Yung, 2001) the nature of formative evaluation must be considered. Methods that are effective in one academic subject or geographic location may not be so in another. Formative evaluation was first used by Scriven (1973) as the term to describe the evaluation of a curriculum while it is still under development. Formative evaluation has since been widely adopted as the term to describe "systematic evaluation in
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the process of curriculum construction, teaching, and learning for the purpose of improving any of these three processes" (Bloom, Hastings, and Madaus, 1971, p.117). Bloom and colleagues went further by describing the use of formative evaluation to improve the teaching and learning processes. In short formative evaluation is used to determine whether a learner has achieved an adequate level of skill or mastery of some subject content before the opportunity to learn that subject content has passed. Formative evaluation involves providing feedback and an opportunity for improvement to take place. Providing feedback requires a judgment about the quality of the work, which can be explicitly indicated by comments and sometimes with an indication of the level of mastery such as a temporary grade. It is clear from the above literature survey that formative feedback is used in academic settings and has been linked to improved achievement in some cases. However it is also clear that feedback is rarely considered in isolation from other elements of formative evaluation and there is only one study focusing specifically on feedback. Secondly most of the studies on this subject have been conducted in Europe or USA, providing little information about use and effect of feedback and formative evaluation in other societies across the world, which may operate diverse educational systems. The major goals of the research were: a) comparing the science achievement of the students who receive some feedback with those who do not receive it in the formative evaluation and, b) comparing the effects of the various methods of feedback i.e. oral, written, and mixed (oral-written) on the achievement of the students who receive the feedbacks in formative evaluation. In this study we attempted to test three hypotheses as follows: H o 1 There is difference between achievements of students who receive feedback in the science subject with those who do not receive any feedback. 2 There is difference between achievements of students who Ho receive written feedback with those who receive only oral feedback.
H o 3 There is difference between achievements of students who receive written feedback in the science with those who receive mixed feedback. Method In this research, the quasi-experimental research method was used. Thus, three experimental groups and one control group were studied. Their specification is depicted vide Figure 1.
Figure 1 Research Design: A Multi-group Pretest Posttest Design with Control Group
Group 1
observation1
X1 X2
observation2
Group 2 Group 3 Control Group
observation1
observation2
observation1
X3 X4
observation2 observation2
observation1
Observation1= pretest for all groups Observation 2= posttest for all groups X1= formative evaluation with oral feedback X2= formative evaluation with written feedback X3 = formative evaluation with mixed feedback (oral - written) X4 = formative evaluation without feedback
Feedback (three types) was independent variable and formative evaluation measuring achievement of students was dependent variable.
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Sample The statistical population of research was all 5th grade male students in the primary schools of Sanandaj, in Kurdistan province of Iran. The cluster random sampling method was used for sampling. First, four schools in the city were randomly chosen; then four classes were selected randomly from among them. The total number of the sample was 154 students. Instruments The instruments used for the research were: a) formative tests, b) standardized summative tests, c) standardized intelligence test (Raven's Progressive Matrixes, 1938). The formative tests used for the experimental and control groups were the same. They cover all themes of educational units according to the educational goals. Each formative test comprised 8 openresponse questions and totally consisted of 88 open-response questions. Standardized summative tests (educational achievement tests) were performed after making them valid and reliable to using as pretest and posttest. It should be mentioned that these tests had face and content validity, and the reliability values of .83 and .86 that were achieved using Split-half procedure. Procedure An intelligence test (Raven's Progressive Matrixes) was administered to each participant to make sure that the groups are homogenous. For this purpose, the intelligence factor was included as a strong effective variable in the educational achievement. Based on the results of intelligence test, 14 participants were removed from the analysis due to having outlier scores, leaving 140 participants in the study. These 140 participants were assigned to four groups, Group 1 (received formative evaluation with oral feedbacks), group 2 (formative evaluation with written feedbacks), and group 3 [received formative evaluation with mixed (oral-written feedback) and a control group (formative evaluation without any feedbacks). Each one consisted of 35 students. We asked the teachers of these four groups to participate in an instructional program to
become familiar with the research process. The formative tests contained 11 sub-tests, administered over 11 weeks. All formative tests were marked by the corresponding teachers but the final summative tests were marked by external examiners to avoid any biases. The feedback was given by the teachers. Results The data achieved through pretest and posttest was analyzed to study the effects of various methods of feedback in formative evaluation on science achievement among four groups. Mean scores and standard deviations with respect to all groups in pretest and post test are listed in Table I.
Table I Mean scores and Standard Deviations for All Groups in Pretest and Posttest Groups (In each group n=35) Group1(oral feedback) Group2(Written feedback) Group3(oral-written) Control Group Pretest SD 2.66 2.52 2.54 2.74 Posttest SD 3.17 2.58 2.58 2.54
M 8.97 8.77 8.94 8.91
M 13.45 15.65 16.49 12.94
Table II shows comparison means of four groups in pretest using ANOVA. The F ratio for pretest was not statistically significant at 0.05 level, F (3) =0.04. Analysis showed that these groups were at the same level in term of basic knowledge in science. That is, the means of scores of pretest did not significantly differ, among all four groups.
Table II. ANOVA Summary Table for Pretest Source of variation Between Groups Within Groups Total *p<0.05 SS 0.829 933.77 934.60 df 3 136 139 F 0.04* -
Results obtained from ANOVA regarding posttest based
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on various methods of formative feedback are reported on Table III.

Table III ANOVA Summary Table for Posttest Source of variation Between Groups Within Groups Total *p< 0.01 SS 62.30 06.10 68.13 df 3 136 139 F 12.94* -
As Table III shows the F ratio for posttest was significant at .01 level, F (3) =12.94. Hence, the hypothesis H o 2 was accepted. That is, it indicated a significant difference among the four groups on the posttest scores. Effect size of significant Fvalue for formative feedback variable was r = 0.47, therefore, as well as, being statistically significant; this effect was large (because it was close to Cohen's (1992) benchmark of 0.50) and represented substantive finding. The effect of formative feedback accounts for 22% of total variance. Having established that the ANOVA for posttest was significant, hence a Post Hoc test using Tukey's HSD procedure was done and presented vide Table IV.
Table IV. Multiple Comparisons of Four Groups Using Tukey's HSD Procedure Mean Difference S.E p 95% confidence interval Upper bound -0.50 -1.33 2.21 3.96 0.90 4.44 4.79 2.56 5.27 1.24 -0.99 -1.81 Lower bound -3.96 -4.79 -1.24 0.50 -2.56 0.99 1.33 -0.90 1.81 -2.21 -4.44 -5.27
Groups
G2 -2.23* 0.67 G3 -3.06* 0.67 CG 0.49 0.67 G1 2.23* 0.67 Group2 G3 -0.83 0.67 CG 2.71* 0.67 G1 3.06* 0.67 Group3 G2 -0.83 0.67 CG 3.54* 0.67 G1 -0.49 0.67 G2 CG** -2.71* 0.67 C3 -3.54* 0.67 * p< .05 , **CG= Control group Group1
.005* .000* .888 .005* .607 .000* .000* .607 .000* .888 .000* .000*
It is clear from the Table IV that each group of participants was compared to all of the remaining groups. For each pair of groups the difference between group means is displayed, the standard error of that difference, the significance level of that difference and a 95% confidence interval. First group (1) was compared to the other groups and revealed a significant difference between groups (1 and 2) as well as groups (1 and 3). In the next part of the table, group (2) was compared to other groups. All of the comparisons were highly significant except the comparison between groups 2 and 3, which was nonsignificant. Hence, null hypothesis H o 3 was accepted. In the last part of the table, the control group was compared to all other groups; again all comparisons (except the comparison between control group and group (1) were significant.
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Table V The Homogenous Subsets from Tukey's HSD Test (N=140) Subset for alpha = .05 1 2 12.94 13.43 15.66 16.49 0.88 0.60
Groups Control Group Group1(oral feedback) Group2 (written feedback) Group3(oral-written) Sig.
Table V that reported means for groups in homogeneous subsets shows that means of groups (1 and 3) do not differ from each other significantly. On the other hand, the control group and group (1), differ significantly from the other two cases. Results obtained from Two Independent samples t-test regarding testing the hypothesis H o 1: that stated "There is significant difference between achievements of the student who receive feedback in the science with those who do not receive any feedback" is presented vide Table VI.
Table VI Comparison Means of Experimental and Control Groups Using t- test Variables Formative Evaluation with Feedback Formative Evaluation without Feedback *p<0.01 M 15.19 12.94 SD 3.04 2.92 t 3.82* df 138
Table VI shows that the value of t-ratio for difference between the means of the two sub-sample under study, namely a sub-sample comprised of three experimental group and second one consisted of control group in respect of feedback in formative evaluation, was found to be statistically significant at the 0.01 level, t (138) =3.82, sig. 2-taild=.000, It indicated that hypothesis H o 1 was accepted. Effect size of significant t-value for feedback variable was = 0.31 (it is close to Cohen's benchmark of .30),
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therefore, as well as, being statistically significant; this effect was medium and represented a substantive effect. The effect of feedback explained 9.2 % of total variance. We concluded that there was significant difference between students' achievement who received feedback in the science with those who did not receive the feedback. That is, scores mean of students in posttest who received feedback was higher than those who did not receive the feedback in formative evaluation. Discussion In this study effect of types of formative feedback was tested experimentally. There was a significant difference between the achievement of students who received written feedback and those who received only oral feedback. It was also found that overall there was significant difference between students' achievement who received feedback and those who did not receive feedback in the science. Evaluation is one of the activities which have a pivotal role in the process of teaching and learning in any system of education. One essential and substantial aspect of evaluation is formative evaluation. This type of evaluation which has been almost neglected by teachers is used to improve and enhance the achievement of the learners. Even though, teachers employ this kind of evaluation, they rarely attempt to correct or improve the shortcomings of the students learning through feedback. Findings of this research indicated that there was a significant difference between those formative evaluations which involve various method feedbacks including oral, written and mixed (oral-written) and those lacking these feedback. Furthermore, formative evaluation along with these feedbacks is more effective. Thus, it can be inferred that formative evaluation can only achieve its educational strategy if the aforementioned feedbacks are included in the teaching process. Studies of Bloom and colleagues (1971) and Fuchs and colleagues (1991) are consistent with these results. The other conclusion is that there was a significant difference between the students who receive written feedback and
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those receive only oral feedback concerning science achievement. In other word, the grades of achievement of students who receive written feedback are more than those who receive merely oral feedback. However, it should be noted, that nature of science subject necessitates written feedback better than oral feedback on learning and educational achievement. As students refer to the questions and formative questions, they can acquire the right answer. The oral feedback of teacher is merely oral, and there is the likelihood that through time the students forget it, and it may not be as useful as written feedback. In his study, Havaezi (1995) also came to the same conclusion. Finally the research showed that there was not a significant difference in educational achievement between the students who receive the written feedback and those who receive mixed feedback (oral-written). In addition, the written feedback and mixed feedback had same effects on educational achievement of students. It can be concluded that these two methods had high covariance. Means and variances of these two methods prove these conclusions. The following suggestions regarding formative evaluation and feedback should be kept in mind. Teachers should be familiar to effects of mixed (oral and written) and written feedback on formative evaluations-teachers should use various methods of feedback in formative evaluation because it creates some motivation. After teaching any educational unit, teachers should give short test (quizzes) under the title" formative evaluation" to assess learners' amount of input they receive. They should try to improve and rectify shortcoming of the learning of the students through proper feedbacks. It is suggested that university teachers and faculty members who set up in-service training programs and new method of teaching highlight the significance of formative evaluations along with oral-written feedbacks or written feedback for the primary school teachers. Teachers should try to provide students with feedback while carrying out formative evaluations and avoid any formative evaluations without feedbacks. The reason is that formative evaluations without feedbacks are likely to de-motivate the students and de-value the results of the tests.
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Finally it should be noted that, both oral and written feedback are essential, and students should be able to expect regular feedback from the teachers. The emphasis should be positive wherever possible. This does not mean that credit should be given where none is due but too many negative feedbacks are not productive in creating an environment in which student feel safe in taking risks and trying new ideas. Feedback should be offered constructively and received positively; it should be accompanied by suggestions or guidance for making progress. The current study, however, has some limitations. It has a small sample size, thereby only one class per condition was employed. Moreover, the assigning of children to classes was not random. It has not been replicated so generalization and application is difficult. References Assessment Reform Group. (1999). Assessment for learning: Beyond the black box. Retrieved July 28, 2004 from the Assessment Reform Group Web site: http: //www.arg.educ. cam.ac.uk/ publications.html Bell, B. & Cowie, B. (2001). The characteristics of formative assessment in science education. Science Education, 85 (5), 536-553. Bloom, B. S., Hastings, J. T., & Madaus, G. F. (1971). Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning. New York; McGraw-Hill. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. (2005). Formative assessment: Improving learning in secondary classrooms. Retrieved March 2005 from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Web site: http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?sf1=ident ifiers&st1=962005021P1 Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. Cowie, B. & Bell, B. (1999). A model of formative assessment in science education. Assessment in Education, 6 (1), 101116. Crooks, T. (2001, September). The validity of formative assessments. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
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British Educational Research Association, Leeds, England. Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., & Stecker, P. M. (1991). Effects of curriculum-based measurement and consultation on teaching, planning, and student achievement in mathematics operations. American Educational Glaser, R. (1963). Instructional technology and the measurement of learning outcomes: Some questions. American Psychologist, 18, 519-521. Havaezi, A. (1995). Comparison of the effect reward level and feedback on mathematics' performance and interest of Iranian male secondary students. Unpublished MA. Thesis, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Iran. Hickey, D. T., & Zuiker, S. J. (2005). Engaged participation: A socio-cultural model of motivation with implications for educational assessment. Educational Assessment, 10 (3), 277-305. Hodgen, J., & Marshall, B. (2005). Assessment for learning in English and mathematics: A comparison. The Curriculum Journal, 16 (2), 153-176. Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (2003). The Student Evaluation Standards. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Kirkwood, M. (2000). Infusing higher-order thinking and learning to learn into content instruction: A case study of secondary computing studies in Scotland. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 32 (4), 509-535. Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63 (3), 18-24. McTighe, J., & OConnor, K. (2005). Seven practices for effective learning. Educational Leadership, 63 (3), 10 17. Miller, L. (2005). Assessing assessment. Professionally Speaking, March, 37-40. Ramaprasad, A. (1983). On the definition of feedback. Behavioral Science, 28 (1), 4-13.
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Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. InstructionalScience, 18 (2), 119144. Scriven, M. (1973). The methodology of evaluation. In B. R. Worthen & J. R. Sanders (Eds.), Educational Evaluation: Theory and Practice (pp. 60-104). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Scriven, M. (1991). Beyond formative and summative evaluation. In M. W. McLaughlin & D. C. Phillips (Eds.), Evaluation and Education: A Quarter Century (Vol. 90, pp. 18- 4). Chicago, Ill: National Society for the Study of education: Distributed by the university of Chicago Press. Shepard, L. A. (2005). Linking formative assessment to scaffolding. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 66-71. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: MacMillan. Skinner, B. F. (1960). Teaching Machines. In A. A. Lumsdaine & R. Glaser (Eds.), Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning, 137-158. Washington, D.C: National Education Association. Stiggins, R. J., & Chappuis, J. (2005). Using student-involved classroom assessment to close achievement gaps. Theory into Practice, 44 (1), 11-18. Stokking, K., van der Schaaf, M., Jaspers, J., & Erkens, G. (2004). Teachers assessment of students research skills. British Educational Research Journal, 30 (1), 93-116. Thissen-Roe, A., Hunt, E., & Minstrell, J. (2004). The DIAGNOSER project: Combining assessment and learning. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 2004, 36 (2), 234-240. Torrance, H., & Pryor, J. (2001). Developing formative assessment in the classroom: Using action research to explore and modify theory. British Educational Research Journal, 27 (5), 615-631. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Wiliam, D., Lee, C., Harrison, C., & Black, P. (2004). Teachers developing assessment for learning: Impact on student achievement. Assessment in Education, 11 (1), 49-65. Yung, B. H. W. (2001). Three views of fairness in a school-based assessment scheme of practical work in biology. International Journal of Science Education, 23 (10), 9851005.
Executive Cognitive Functioning, Visual Motor Functioning and Working Memory Deficits in Schizophrenics
Najma Najam* Department of Applied Psychology University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan Fatima Abdullah Alumnus Fatima Jinnah Women University, The Mall, Rawalpindi The present study aimed to assess the deficits in executive functioning, visual motor functioning and working memory in patients with schizophrenia using various neuropsychological protocols. Participants were 25 schizophrenia patients who were referred by senior psychiatrists from the outpatient psychiatry departments of Rawalpindi General Hospital & Military Hospital Rawalpindi, Pakistan. All patients were clinically stable for the administration of neuropsychological tests and maintained their daily medication protocol/intake. Executive functioning was assessed using Trails B, Stroop Color Task and Stroop Color Word Test (SCT & SCWT) and Controlled Oral Word Association test (COWA). Visual motor functioning was assessed by Trails A, Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test and Mazes test. Working Memory was assessed by subtests of Wechsler Memory Scale: Word-List I, Letter Number Sequencing (LNS) and Digit Span. Patients with more than 3 years of history of illness performed poorly on tests of executive functioning, visual motor and working memory as compared to patients with less than 3 years illness. Key words: Executive Cognitive Functioning, Visual Motor Functioning, Working Memory, Schizophrenia.
Cognitive impairment is characterized by difficulties which include memory loss, poor attention, impaired concentration,
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Prof. Dr. Najma Najam, Department of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail: najamnajma@yahoo.com
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language difficulties (recognizing and using appropriate words) and perceptual skills, and slowed learning (Lezak, Howieson, & Loring, 2004). Impairment of neuropsychological and basic information processing abilities is an important feature of schizophrenia (Censits, Ragland, & Gur, 1997) however, the degree of impairment differs. Some studies suggest that most severe cognitive impairments occur in measures of attention, verbal fluency, motor speed, and executive function, and moderate impairments occurs in working memory, immediate memory span and verbal learning (Susan, McGurk, Jayathilake, & Meltzer, 2004; Rund, 1998; Terry, Goldberg, & Green, 2002). Longitudinal studies across premorbid and morbid periods found significant decreases in the performance of executive functions, working memory & motor functions among patients with schizophrenia (Schwartzman, Douglas 1962 as cited by Terry, Goldberg & Green 2002) Marked cognitive abnormalities are reported at the onset of the illness in patients during the first episode of schizophrenia. However, there is evidence showing neuropsychological profiles of patients with first-episode similar to those with chronic schizophrenia (Censits, Ragland, & Gur, 1997; Gold, Arndt, & Nopoulos, 1999). Studies using Trails Making Test (requiring visual search and motor speed) on patients with schizophrenia have reported that patients took more time and commit more errors on the test (Crowe & Trobe, 1998). It has also been reported that patient with less illness duration commit less errors as compared to those with longer illness duration (Hutton, Puri, & Duncan, 1998; Roderick, Mahurin, Velligan & Alexander 2006; Wolver & Gaebel, 2002, 2003). Similarly, Vecchio and Gargiulo (1992) in their study found more errors such as distortion and dispersion on Bender Visual Motor Gestalt test among schizophrenics. Krieger, Lis and Gallhofer (1997, 2001) using the Mazes Test found patients with schizophrenia taking longer time and committing more errors. They also reported positive relationship between duration of illness and errors committed.
EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
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Executive Functioning It includes the ability to initiate and stop actions, to monitor and change behaviour as needed, and to plan future behaviour when faced with novel tasks and situations, such as planning, sequence, cognitive flexibility, abstract thinking, role acquisition, initiating appropriate actions and inhibiting inappropriate actions, and selecting relevant sensory information (Lezak et al., 2004). It sustains ones behaviour towards some goal, incorporating feedback and making adjustments along the way (Stirling, 2002). Executive functioning is regarded as one of the primarily disturbed cognitive domains in schizophrenia patients, (Morice & Delahunty, 1996). These functional domains are self-regulation, sequencing of behavior, flexibility, response inhibition, planning and organization of behavior, self-regulation of emotion and motivation, internalisation of speech and self-description (Barry, n.d). Frontal lobes play a major role in executive functioning. Deficits in executive control have been classically associated with acquired damage to the prefrontal cortex, but recent findings showed its association with the damage to interconnected cortical and subcortical brain areas. The severity of orbitofrontal atrophy has been reported to correlate with negative symptoms in schizophrenia (Stirling, 2002). Executive deficits are present from the beginning of the disorder, even among drug-nave, firstepisode cases (Royall, Lauterbach, Cummings, Reeve, Rummans, Kaufer, LaFrance, & Coffey, 2002: Pantelis, Barnes, Nelson, 1997 as cited by Terry, Goldberg, & Green, 2002). Bozikas, Kosmidis, Kiosseoglou and Karavatos, (2006) examined executive functions/abstraction, fluency, verbal and spatial working memory, verbal and nonverbal memory, attention, visuospatial ability, and psychomotor speed of patients with schizophrenia. They reported that patients performed poorly in all tests, and exhibited significantly poor mental flexibility and concept formation. Researchers using Stroop to test report problems related to attentional fatigue and disturbances of alternative pattern related to color and words in patients with schizophrenia (Bench, Frith, Grasby, Friston, Paulesu, & Frackowiak, 1993; MacDonald, Cohen, Stenger, & Carter, 2000;
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Pardo, Janer & Raichle, 1990; Turken & Swick, 1999 as cited by Henik, Salo, 2004). Similarly, Bokat and Goldberg, (2003) in their study found that Letter and Category Fluency had been impaired in patients with schizophrenia. Duration of illness badly effects verbal production of the patients (Chen, Chen, Chan, Lam, & Lieh-Mak, 2000). Impairment of executive-frontal lobe functioning, affecting the planning, initiation and regulation of goal-directed behavior is a common cognitive deficit in schizophrenia. Roderick, Mahurin, Velligan, Alexander and Miller (2006) assessed executive-frontal abilities in hospitalized schizophrenic patients using a wide range of tests and found significant deficits in patients. Visual Motor Functioning Investigations have reported impaired visuomotor function in the ability to control movement direction when tracing simple patterns and in keeping pace with a moving target in tracking tests (Krauzlis & Stone, 1999 as cited by Silver, Shlomo, Schwartz & Hocherman, 2002). Impaired control of eye movements, well documented in schizophrenia, could be contributing to visuomotor deficits. Since controlled eye movements are needed to guide hand movements for effective and coordinated effort, impaired eye movements may interfere with visuomotor coordination directly (Rosenberg, Sweeney, Squires, & Wheeler, 1997 as cited by Silver, Shlomo, Schwartz & Hocherman, 2002). Eyehand coordination requires intact frontal-parietal-temporal connections (Schwartz, A. 1994 as cited by Silver, Shlomo, Schwartz & Hocherman, 2002) which is presumably disturbed in schizophrenia (Frith, 1995; Liddle, 1996 as cited by Silver, Shlomo, Schwartz & Hocherman, 2002). Patients with schizophrenia are also reported to have impaired motion perception, spatial localization, eye tracking, dysfunctional eye movement as well as difficulty detecting simple visual stimuli (Pamela, Butler, Zemon, Stephen, Schwartz, Greenstein, Gordon, Charles, Schroeder, & Daniel, 2001).
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Working Memory Working memory, a construct first introduced by Baddeley (as cited by Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley, 1986) is defined as the maintenance, manipulation and utilization of mental representations to guide future motor and cognitive behavior. There are different domains of information that can be held in working memory. Baddeley (1986,1992, 1996) provided a twotier model of working memory, whereby the central executive oversees maintenance and manipulation of information, which is processed via modality-specific subsystems for verbal and visuospatial working memory. Working memory involves storage of relevant information of immediate and recent events and identified as a neuropsychological function of the temporal lobe (GoldmanRakic 1987, 1994, 1997 as cited by Narayanan, n.d). This central executive is assumed to use slave systems, which serve processing of visuo-spatial ("visuo-spatial sketchpad") and language-based information ("phonological loop" or "articulatory loop"). Researches indicate that working memory and executive deficits are present from the very onset of schizophrenic disorder, even among drug-nave, first-episode cases (Royall et al 2002). Goldman-Rakic (1994) state that deficits in the ability to guide behavior may be leading to schizophrenia thought disorder. Keeping in view existing researches, the present study was conducted to examine executive functioning, visual motor functioning and working memory in patients with schizophrenia using neuropsychological tests. Hypotheses 1. Patients with longer duration of illness are more likely to show poorer performance on executive functions as compared to those with shorter illness duration. 2 Patients with longer illness duration are more likely to have poor performance on visual motor functioning as compared to those with shorter duration of illness. 3. Patients with longer illness duration are more likely to show poorer performance on working memory as compared to those with shorter duration of illness.
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Method Research Design Between subject design was used to examine executive functioning, visual motor functioning and working memory in patients with schizophrenia. Participants The participants for the present study comprised of twentyfive (25) right handed schizophrenic patients (paranoid (n=6), Schizo-affective (n=7), disorganized (n=5), undifferentiated (n=7). Patients were recruited using purposive sampling technique from the outpatient settings at the department of Psychiatry of hospitals in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The patients were clinically diagnosed by psychiatrists using clinical interviews, observations, and case notes and DSM criteria (APA, 2002). The patients were divided into two groups on the basis of illness duration i.e. a) those who had been diagnosed for less than three years and those who had been diagnosed for more than three years. The patients had to meet the DSM-IV criteria for diagnosis of schizophrenia that all patients should be clinically stable for the administration of neuropsychological tests. The exclusion criterion was that the patients with other medical conditions (neurological problems, central nervous system disorder, mental retardation, head injury and substance abuse) which could affect cognition. Majority of the patients was up to 30 years of age (53.8%) and were educated up to matric and FA. The patients had maintained their regular atypical antipsychotics (risperidone=5.8 mg/day; olanzapine=15.2 mg/day; and clozapine=256.2 mg/day) daily dosage of medications.
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Table 1 Demographic characteristics and illness related information (N=25). Variables Gender Male Female Education Able to recite Quran (Muslims Holy Book) Five Years of Education 10 12 Years 14 Years >14 Years Age <=30 Years >30 Years Duration of Illness <=3 Years >3 Years Diagonosis Paranoid Type Disorganized Type Undifferenciated Type Schzoaffective Disorder F 20 5 1 7 13 2 2 14 11 12 13 6 5 7 7 % 19.2 76.9 3.8 26.9 50.0 7.7 7.7 53.8 42.3 46.2 50.0 23.1 19.2 26.9 26.9
The data indicates that majority of the patients were males and educated up to matric and FA (secondary school). Most of the patients had undifferentiated type and schizo-affective disorder. Assessment Measures Assessment of Executive Function For the assessment of Executive function, the following tests were used. 1. Trail Making Test (Trails B) was used for assessment of cognitive flexibility, scanning and visuomotor tracking, and divided attention, identification and detection of frontal lobe deficits, impairments in set shifting, visual search, psychomotor speed, sequencing and attention. TMT B involves connecting circles; not only numbers but also letters in ascending order (e.g. 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, etc) and also measures ability to learn an
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organizing principle and apply it systematically, serial retention and integration, verbal problem solving, and planning, (Lezak et al, 2004). Form of errors like lifting the pencil, retracing and omitting error were also considered. Higher scores on time & errors indicated the higher impairment in executive functioning of the participant. Poorer TMT-B performance in schizophrenia patients seems related to impaired planning strategies (Hutton, Puri, & Duncan, 1998). 2. Ishihara Test (Screening for color blindness) was used to screen out patients for color blindness as a pre requisite for administration of Stroop Colour-Word test (Lezak et al, 2004). The test includes five color plates in which different alphabetical numbers are written with different colors. If the patient had any difficulty in indication of different patterns of color and sequences of numbers then the patient had to be excluded from the study. 3. Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) is a standard measure in neuropsychological assessment. It measures cognitive processing and provides valuable diagnostic information on brain dysfunction, cognition, and psychopathology. It is a test of selective attention and interference susceptibility. These skills have implications for the performance of everyday tasks that involve focused attention, cognitive impulse control, and decision-making, which are key components of executive function (Stroop, 1935 as cited by Lezak, 2004). Urdu version of the test was used in the present research (Laminis, 2004-2005). Adopted form of Stroop test consisted of color (C) Stimulus sheet, form color word (CW) stimulus sheet. The forms (C) stimulus sheet and form (C-W) stimulus sheet consist of 100 color names (blue, green, red and yellow-in Urdu) arranged in four columns of 25 names but no color was printed with its own color on this sheet. Patients had to read the word printed on the C stimulus sheet as quickly as possible. Then another C-W stimulus sheet was provided to the patient to read out the colors only in which the words were written. Before administration of the test, it was ensured that the patient knew colors names used in the test. 4. Controlled Oral Word Association test (COWA) a standardized instrument for the assessment of executive functions was developed by Benton. COWA evaluates the spontaneous
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production of words beginning with a given letter or belonging to a given category within a limited amount of time, requiring production of as many words in 1 minute beginning with the given letter of the alphabet (excluding proper noun, numbers and the same word with the different suffix), The most commonly used letters are F, A, S, although C, F, L and P, R, W are commonly used as alternatives (Lezak, 2004). This test involves clustering (the production of words within semantic or phonemic categories) and shifting (the ability to shift to a new category). Assessment of Visual Motor functioning For Visual Motor functioning, the following tests were used. 1. Trail Making Test (Trails A) was used to assess visual motor scanning, visuomotor tracking, divided attention, and cognitive flexibility numeric sequencing, visuomotor speed and visuospatial scanning and it evaluates the process of rote memory. TMT A is a simple pen-and-paper task which requires the patient to connect the series of circles containing numbers in ascending order. 2. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT) consists of nine geometric designs (numbered A and 1-8). Each design was presented sequentially to the patient whose task was to reproduce them on a blank sheet of paper (Bender, 1938). The tests involve visual-motor skills in which hand-eye coordination is needed, as a result patient's ability to accurately perceive and then reproduce figures. The examiner also notes visual-perceptual skills; the capacity of the mind and the eye to "see" something as it objectively exists. Scoring is based on accuracy and organization of figures and interpretation depends on evaluating the figure for their rotation, distortion, symmetry, and perseveration. 3. Mazes subtest (WISC-R/III) was used to measure the fine motor control, attention, and visual perception in patients (Neil & Woodward, 2003). It contains ten trails of mazes and total time taken to trace the mazes is recorded using stopwatch. Errors like touches the line, moving in, moving out, retracing are noted. Higher scores on time and errors indicate the impairment.
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Assessment of Working Memory 1. Word List I (subtest of WMS) was used to assess the working memory in patients with schizophrenia. This consists of 12 words that have no semantic association presented over 4 learning trials, followed by a single trial of a second i.e. interference list recall of the first list is requested. Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia have been associated with working memory problems (Elvevg, Weinberger, Daniel, Goldberg, & Terry, 2001). 2. Letter Number sequencing (subtest of WMS) consists of string (7 items, 3 trials each) of alternating sequence of letters and numbers. The patient was required to repeat the strings so reorganize the numbers together in ascending order and letters in alphabetical order. 3. Digit Span (subtest of WMS) measures attention, working memory and short-term memory, using Digit Span forward & Digit Span backward task each of which involves different mental activities and are affected differently by brain damage (Banken, 1985; Kaplan. et al., 1991 as cited by Lezak, 2004). Total scores of digit forward and backward and sum of both forward and backward were taken. Low scores on forward, backward & sum of both indicate deficits in working memory (Wechsler, 1997). Procedure Twenty five patients with schizophrenia were recruited on the basis of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria from outpatient settings of hospitals in Rawalpindi, Pakistan with the help of senior psychiatrists. The purpose of study and ethical guarantees were fully explained to them and it was assured that all the information will kept confidential and will be used only for the research purposes. Informed consent was taken from the patients meeting inclusion criteria. To reduce and allay anxiety of the participants, the neuropsychological instruments were clearly stated as research tools rather than part their medical examination. Tests were administrated in the same sequence to all patients and individual assessment was carried out in single session at the premises of the hospital.
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Tests were administered according to the prescribed procedure in the manuals of respective tests and assessment was carried out in the following sequence: 1. Socio-demographic and illness related information. 2.Assessment of executive functioning: Trails B; Ishihara's test for color vision; Stroop Color and Color-Word Test (SC-SWT); Controlled Word Association test (COWA). 3. Assessment of visual motor functioning: Bender Visual Motor Gestalt test; Trials A; Mazes test (WAIS-R subscale). 4. Assessment of working memory: Word List I (subtest of WMS); Letter Number Sequencing test (subtest of WMS); Digit Span (subtest of WMS). All tests were administered per prescribed method of administration and behavioral observation was also made where required. On average, it took about two hours to complete assessment. Results For demographics information, frequencies and percentages were computed. In order to examine executive and cognitive functioning in relation to duration of illness, patients were categorized into two groups: a. those with illness duration of less than or equal to three years; b. those with illness duration of more than three years. A series of independent sample t-test was used to compare two groups on executive and cognitive functioning.
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Table 2 Comparison of executive functioning of patients with less than 3 year of illness (n=12) & those with more than 3 year of illness (n=13) Duration of M SD t illness Trials B Time < 3 Years 218.33 34.07 4.99* > 3 Years 421.69 136.90 < 3 Years 11.83 1.53 13.99** Errors > 3 Years 23.69 2.69 SWT Time Correct Responses SCWT Correct Responses Incorrect Responses (Stroop-Inter of Time) COWAT Correct Words Errors COWAT Category Correct Words Errors *p<0.01, ** p<0.001 < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years 191.67 347.23 83.92 49.85 819.62 57.58 42.42 66.54 292.50 474.23 4.08 4.92 18.08 11.08 252.50 477.46 6.44 21.46 15.28 47.60 3.90 9.74 16.64 11.68 12.42 6.28 53.28 87.72 0.90 1.75 4.66 2.87 29.27 17.41 1.24 2.11 1.48** 4.56* 10.80** 1.30*
6.63* 6.10* 6.19*
23.57** 19.14**
The table indicates significant differences in two groups on executive functioning. Patients with longer duration of illness showed more deterioration in executive functioning compared to those with shorter duration of illness. On Stroop color test and Stroop color word test, patients with longer duration took longer time, gave more incorrect and less correct responses compared to those with shorter duration of illness. However, no significant difference in two groups was found in performance on Stroop
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word interference task. COWA and COWA Category Test scores indicate that patients with more than 3 years illness duration gave less total words, less correct words and committed more errors as compared to patients with lesser duration of illness.
Table 3 Comparison of visual motor functioning of patients with less than 3 year of illness (n=12) & those with more than 3 year of illness (n=13) Duration of illness Trails A Time Errors BVMGT Errors Mazes Time < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years M SD t
16.00 29.69 1104.42 1785.23 16.92 30.38 20.75 11.54 5.00 2.62
3.49 1.89 84.58 34.16 1.62 4.82 0.97 2.11 1.04 0.65
12.33** 26.78**
9.19*
< 3 Years > 3 Years Errors < 3 Years > 3 Years *p<0.01, ** p<0.001
13.85** 6.91*
Analyses pertaining to visual motor functioning revealed that patients with longer duration of illness significantly differed from patients with less duration of illness. On Trails A test, patients who had illness for more than 3 years spent more time and committed more errors as compared to patients with lesser duration of illness. Patients with longer duration of illness also performed poorly on Bender Visual Motor Gestalt test. Similar results were found for Mazes test. Patients with chronic condition took significantly longer to complete the task, committed more errors as compared to patients with lesser duration of illness.
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Table 4 Comparison of working memory of patients with less than 3 year of illness (n=12) & those with more than 3 year of illness (n=13) Duration of illness Word list I Recall List A Recall List B Short Delay Recall LNS Digit Span Digit forward Digit backward Total of Digit Span (Forward & Backward) < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years < 3 Years > 3 Years M SD t
20.75 11.54 5.00 2.62 6.58 3.00 5.92 3.46 7.58 2.69 3.33 1.38
0.97 2.11 1.04 0.65 1.93 0.71 0.67 1.13 1.00 0.48 1.30 0.51
13.85** 6.91* 6.25*
6.55*
15.83** 5.00*
< 3 Years > 3 Years df = 23, *p<0.01,**p<0.001
11.33 4.92
1.44 0.76
14.11**
The results indicates a significant differences between the means of total recall score on list A, total recall score on list B and on short delay recall score of List A in two groups of patients. It indicated that patients with more than 3 years of illness duration scored less on total recall of List A and short delay recall of List A as compared to the patients with shorter duration of illness. Moreover, patients with longer duration of illness attained low score on Letter Number Sequencing test as compared to patients who had shorter duration of illness. Similarly, significant differences were found on means scores on digit span forward, digit span backward and total digit span score.
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Discussion The present study aimed to assess executive functions, visual motor functioning and working memory in patients with schizophrenia relation to illness duration using various neuropsychological assessment tools. Findings of the present study supported research hypotheses and significant differences in various executive and cognitive functions were found in relation to the duration of illness. Patients with longer duration of illness committed more errors and took longer time to complete the task on Trails B. These findings are consistent with several previous studies (Hutton, Puri, and Duncan, 1998; Roderick, Mahurin, Velligan, & Alexander 2006; Wolwer & Gaebel, 2002; Wolwer, Falkai, Streit, & Gaebel, 2003). Patients with chronic schizophrenia are reported to take longer time in sequenced searching ('planning') and connecting targets and they also committed impulsive errors (jump from 12 to 13 on trails B, omitting L) and perseveration (difficulty shifting from number to letters (Golden, Espe-pfeifer, & Wacsler-Felder 2002). Further, since TMT B requires visual scanning & eye movement, patients with longer duration of illness exhibit more errors like retracing, lifting pencil, tracking which suggests difficulties in cognitive organization (Roderick, Mahurin, Velligan, & Alexander 2006; Crowe & Trobe, 1998). Executive functioning problems assessed using Stroop Color and Word Test (SCT & SCWT), COWA and COWA Category test were pronounced among those with longer illness duration. There were significant differences on the time taken, correct responses and incorrect responses. Patients with more than 3 years of illness duration had longer reaction time, accurate responses and difficulty in inhibiting over learned tendencies (of reading the word) compared to patients with less duration of illness. Patients with more than 3 years of illness duration also showed abnormalities of language due to which their words are generally halting, slurred, and mispronounced. During test there was also psychomotor difficulty among all patients (e.g., difficulty of speech, lack of spontaneous movement, blunting of affect) as well as disorganization (e.g., inappropriate affect and thought disturbance) that resulted in general slowness
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and hesitation in vocal production. They also showed deficient in remembering the instructions which hindered in their performance. These findings are consistent with previous findings (Bokat, Goldberg, 2003; Chen, Chen, Chan, Lam, LiehMak, 2000; Kolb & Wishaw, 1983; Perlstein, Carter, & Barch, 1998). On COWA, patients with longer duration of illness showed of errors (rule violation such as non words, proper noun and numbers) and repetitions (there were also the signs of true perseverations & variations on the just previously given word) that are the evidence of their impaired ability to generate words and keep track of earlier response simultaneously Patients also exhibited more perseveration on this task. Patients with schizophrenia are reported to have difficulty shifting to another appropriate response (Golden, Espe-pfeifer & Wacsler-Felder, 2002). In COWA category test, patients with chronic condition in the beginning said that this task of animal naming seems simple. They struggled to name words beginning with a particular letter and it was problematic for them, as this task required for patients to organize concepts in a novel way. Similar findings have been reported in earlier research (Curtis et al., 1998; Cherie, Marvel, Barbara, Schwartz, Keren, & Isaacsa, 2004). Findings pertaining to visual motor functioning also supported research hypothesis. Patients having schizophrenia for more than three years showed poorer performance on Trails A test. Slow processing speed, visual scanning & hand-eye coordination led to more errors such as lifting pencil, retracing and more time taken due to longer fixations. It showed patients inability to connect the series of circles containing numbers in ascending order, even when they know the alphabetical series so overall they lacked visual-motor scanning speed. Our findings are in consensus with previous studies (Crowe, Trobe, 1998; Hutton, Puri, & Duncan, 1998). Performance of patients with chronic schizophrenia on Bender Visual Motor Gestalt test also complemented their performance on Trails A. Patients with longer duration of schizophrenia had more problems in the visual scanning of the whole design. They continuously used erasure to improve lines and they had more
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distortions, splitting, and dispersions in figures. Their figures also indicated disturbance of splitting expressing itself by a dissociation in the gestalt figures, which often distorts them fundamentally so that the gestalt principles are spilt. It was seen that the integration of the gestalt involved many fields of the experience including the central problems of the personality (Vecchio & Gargiulo, 1992). On mazes test, patients with longer duration took longer routes of mazes as well as longer time. There was a greater number of wall touching, retracing, lifting the pencil. They exhibited the difficulty of attention and on the execution of movements, and in trying to avoid wall touching, as per instructions, and also in irregular behavior (entering deadends and going back towards the starting area). Working memory was also influenced more in patients who had schizophrenia for longer time. Performance on all subtests used for assessment of working memory was in the same line. Our findings are substantiated by existing research on schizophrenia (Elvevg, Weinberger, & Goldberg, 2001; Conklin, Curtis, Katsanis, Iacono, 2000; Glahn, Cannon, & Gur, 2005; Salam, Danion, Peretti & Cuervo, 1998; Silver, Feldman, Bilker, & Gur, 2003; Silver & Feldman, 2005). In line with earlier research by Sabah and Najam (2007), patients having illness for longer duration had reduced repertoire of words. The findings on Letter Number Sequencing Test (subtest of WMS) were also consistent with research hypothesis and previous researches (McGurk, Coleman, Harvey, Reichenberg, White, Friedman, Parrella, & Davis, 2004). Patients with chronic condition showed the loss of set, as well as gave responses in the opposite pattern. They recalled the last words in the start and forgot the first sequence numbers. Some patients closed their eyes while responding by using the visualization strategy or attempting to increase attention and focus by blocking out visual distractions (Glahn, Cannon, & Gur, 2005; Nathaniel-James Brown, & Ron, 1996). These patients also have the pattern in the error like (by missing only the letters, but getting all the numbers correct) which indicate their stimulus overload or an advantage for processing the letters or numbers (Golden, Espe-pfeifer, & Wacsler-Felder, 2002).
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On digit span, patients with more than 3 years of illness duration had more omissions, sequencing errors, preservation to previous items. During test they also used the strategy such as writing on an imaginary piece of paper or closing eyes for increased concentration. There were significant differences on digit span forward & backward and total of DSF & DSB. These findings are consistent with several previous studies (Silver, Feldman, Bilker, & Gur 2003; Heather 2005; Gold 1992; Conklin 2000, McKenna, 1990). Digit span backward related to mental tracking that involve some perceptual tracking or more complex mental operations & visual scanning, somewhat all patients scored low on this (Weinberg & Diller 1972 as cited by Lezak, Howieson & Loring, 2004; Salam, Danion, Peretti & Cuervo 1998). Working memory impairment is common in schizophrenia patients, some studies have found differential impairment in working memory (Elizabeth, Twamley, Palmer, Jeste, Taylor & Heaton, 2006) assessed by using the Digit Span forward (DF) and backward (DB) Span tasks and Letter-Number Sequencing (LNS), a working memory test among the schizophrenia patients (n=267) and normal comparison subjects (n=82). They analyzed that the DB scores predicted LNS performance, whereas DF scores did not. Worse negative symptoms were associated with worse performance on DF, DB and LNS. They concluded that the results reflect working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia (Stip & Lussier, 1996). There are limitations in the present study which one needs to be cautious of. The selected nature of the study group limits generalization to all types of schizophrenia. Clinical factors, such as withdrawal, distractibility, and lack of motivation, could be at play in diminished performance. These variables must thus be taken into account. The effect of medication may also be a significant confound, as all patients received atypical antipsychotics, which minimally affect and may even improve cognitive function in schizophrenia. The future research should be carried out with large sample with longitudinal studies which would allow examine long-term effects of schizophrenia. Moreover, future studies should control
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factors such as age at the time of onset, number of hospitalizations, age at first hospitalization, dosage of medications, severity, institutionalization, co morbidity, or extra pyramidal symptoms. Controlling for these parameters is particularly important as each may alter cognitive performance. References American Psychological Association. (2002). Publication Manualof American Psychological Association (5th Ed.): Washington DC. Baddeley, A. (1992).Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559. Badderly, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive functioning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49, 5-28. Barry, D. (n.d). Executive functions, Retrieved April 20, 2006 from http://hale.pepperdine.edu/%7Barry3/Winter/634/ executive.html Barch, D. M. (2005). The Cognitive neuroscience of schizophrenia. Annual Revision Clinical Psychology, 1, 321-353. Bender, L. (1938). A visual-motor gestalt test and its clinical use. Research Monographs, 3, New York: American Orthopsychiatric Association. Bender, L. (1938). A visual-motor gestalt test (Manual) New York: American Orthopsychiatric Association. Blanchard, J. J. & Neale, J. M. (1994). The neuropsychological signature of schizophrenia: generalized or differential deficit. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 40-48. Bokat, C. E. & Goldberg, T. E. (2003). Letter and Category Fluency in schizophrenia patients: A Meta analysis. schizophrenia Research, 64, 73-78. Bozikas, V. P., Kosmidis, M. H., Kiosseoglou, G. & Karavatos, A. (2006). Neuropsychological profile of cognitively impaired patients with schizophrenia. Comparative Psychiatry, ( Mar-Apr) 47(2), 136-43.
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Lezak, D. M., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. McGurk, S. R., Coleman, T., Harvey, P. D., Reichenberg, A., White, L., Friedman, J., et al. (2004). Working memory performance in poor outcome schizophrenia: relationship to age and executive functioning. Journal Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(2), 153-60. Morice, R., & Delahunty, A. (1996). Frontal/executive impairments in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 22(1), 125-37. Narayanan. K (n.d). The Neurological Scratchpad: Looking Into Working Memory. Retrieved April 20, 2006 from http://www.brainconnection.com. Nathaniel-James D. A., Brown, R., Ron, M. A. (1996). Memory impairment in schizophrenia: Its relationship to executive function. Schizophrenia Research, 21, 85-96. Palmer, B. W., Heaton, R. K., & Paulsen, J. S. (1997). Is it possible to be schizophrenic yet neuropsychologically normal? Neuropsychology, 11, 437-446. Pamela, D., Zemon, V., Stephen, G., Schwartz, Greenstein, E., Gordon, J., et al. (2001). Dysfunction of Early-Stage Visual Processing in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatry 158, 1126-1133. Perlstein, W. M., Carter, C. S., & Barch, D. M. (1998). The Stroop task and attention deficits in schizophrenia: a critical evaluation of card and single-trial Stroop methodologies. Neuropsychology, 12, 414425. Roderick, K., Mahurin, I. D., Alexander L. & Miller, A. L. (2006). Executive-frontal lobe cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia: A symptom Subtype Analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 37(10), 758- 60. Royall, D. R., Lauterbach, E. C., Cummings, J. L., Reeve, A., Rummans, T. A., Kaufer, D. I., et al. (2002). Executive Control Function: A review of its promise and challenges for clinical research. A report from the committee on research of the American Neuropsychiatry Association,
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Journal Neuropsychiarty Clinical Neuroscience, 14, 377405. Rund, B. R. (1998). A review of longitudinal studies of cognitive functions in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 425-435. Sabah, S., & Najam, N. Comparison of Memory Deficits among Chronic Schizophrenics, Drug Addicts and Normals in Pakistan. Journal of Psychological Research, 22 (3-4), 91106. Salam, P., Danion, J. M., Peretti, S., & Cuervo, C. (1998). The state of functioning of Working memory in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 30, 11-29. Stip, E., & Lussier, I. (1996). The Heterogeneity of Memory Dysfunction in Schizophrenia. Acta Psychologica, 41, 1420. Stirling, J. (2002). Introducing Neuropsychology. NewYork: Psychology Press. Silver, H., Feldman, P., Bilker, W., & Gur, R. C. (2003). Working Memory Deficit as a Core Neuropsychological Dysfunction in Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1809-1816. Silver, H., & Feldman, P. (2005). Evidence for Sustained Attention and Working Memory in Schizophrenia Sharing a Common Mechanism. Journal of Neuropsychiatry Clinical Neuroscience 17, 391-398. Retrieved April 20,2006 from http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/ Silver, H., Shlomo, N., Schwartz, M., & Hocherman, S. ( 2002). Impaired Visuomotor Function in Schizophrenic Patients Compared With Control Subjects, Neuropsychiatry Clinical Neuroscience, 14, 72-76. Sullivan, E. V., Shear, P. K., Zipursky, B., Sagar, H. J., & Pfefferbaum, A. (1994). A deficit profile of executive, memory & motor functions in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 37(10), 758- 60. Terry, E., Goldberg, Z., & James, M. (n.d.). Neurocognitive Functioning in patients with Schizophrenia. Retrieved April 10, 2006 from http://www.acnp.org/g4/GN401000120/CH118.html
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Terry, E., Goldberg, T. E., & Green, M. F., (2002). Neurocognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia: an overview. Neuropsychopharmacology, The Fifth Generation of Progress, 819-831. Vecchio, D. S., & Gargiulo, P. A. (1992). Visual and motor functions in schizophrenic patients. Acta Psiquiatr Psicol Am Lat, 34-47 (in Spanish with English abstract). Retrieved April 20, 2006, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (1997). Technical Manual. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation Harcourt Brace & company. Wechsler, D. (1997). Administration & scoring Manual of Wechsler Memory Scale III. (3rd ed.). San Antonio: Psychological Corporation Harcourt Brace & company. Wolwer, W. Falkai, P., Streit, M., & Gaebel, W. (2003). Trait characteristic of impaired visuomotor integration during Trail-Making Test B performance in schizophrenia. Elsevier Science, 48, 59-67. Wolwer, W., & Gaebel, W. (2002). Impaired Trail-Making TestB performance in patients with acute schizophrenia is related to inefficient sequencing of planning and acting. Elsevier Science, 48, 59-67. Zakaria, A. Z. B. (7th October 2004). Verbal working Memory in schizophrenia. Paper presented at the 1997 National Scientific Meeting, Retrieved May 15, 2006 from University Sains Malaysia Medical Alumni Society database.
Journal of Behavioural Sciences Vol. 18
Number 1-2 2008
Factors Influencing Customers Willingness to Buy in the Context of PC peripherals

Nadim Jahangir*, Shubhankar Shil and Noorjahan Parvez Independent University, Bangladesh This study investigates the relationship between brand name, product quality, price sensitivity, and promotion with willingness to buy in context of personal computer (PC) peripherals. As the study focuses on PC peripherals and not the PC itself, the study explores a few unique dimensions of buying behavior and it aims at finding the magnitude of the above noted relationships. The stepwise regression analysis discloses significant statistical relationship between product quality, price sensitivity, and promotion with willingness to buy. In context of Bangladesh, brand name is not significantly related to willingness to buy. The reason being they are merely peripherals and not PCs hence, they are not significantly influenced by the brand name. Keywords: Brand name, Product quality, Price sensitivity, Willingness to buy
The computer peripherals industry has turned out to be a booming sector for Bangladesh, especially over the last few years. The computer hardware and peripherals market is worth approximately $25 million and is increasing by 20-25% per year (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2005). According to the statistics of year 2003, the U.S. share of this market was about 55%. Industry experts opine that there are approximately 6,50,000 desktop PCs in Bangladesh now, with sales dominated by locally assembled clones (85%). A large number of computer assemblers import motherboards and other components from Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea. However, the hardware and peripherals market is largely dominated by U.S. brands. Strong customer preference for U.S. computers points to good prospects for increased sales. The
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nadim Jahangir, Associate Professor, Independent University, Bangladesh. Phone No. 9884498/988197. Email: njahangir@iub.edu.bd
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Jahangir, Shil and Pervez
June 1998 elimination of duties as well as a 2002 withdrawal of a plan to impose a 7.5% duty has boosted computer imports and led to a drastic reduction in retail prices. Nowadays, most vendors are targeting small offices and home users. Since the introduction of the Internet services in 1997, a growing number of businesses and individuals have been buying computers for their communication needs. A principal component of branding is the selection of a brand name. A brand name which contains words, numbers or letters is the component of a brand which can be spoken or verbalized (Bennett, 1988). People generally prefer short crispy brand names rather than lengthy or complex ones. Generally, brand name suggests benefits or qualities associated with the product. A good brand name should be easy to spell, pronounce, remember, be distinctive and free of any negative connotations. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) came up with a network memory model to measure brand. According to this model, brand name can be defined as a name linked to the perceptions of the consumers about a brand which occupies a permanent place in their memory. Thus, brand name associations are very important information linked to memory and contain the meaning of the brand for consumers. Product quality has been selected as one of the independent variables of this study. A necessary ingredient for improvement of quality is the application of profound knowledge (Deming, 1994). A number of literatures have identified quality as a core substance variable (Adam & Swamidass, 1989; Montoya-Weiss & Calantone, 1994). Defining quality is very difficult as it involves translating the need of the user into measurable characteristics. On the basis of those characteristics a product can be designed which will have the ability to provide satisfaction at a reasonable price (Deming, 1986). Different definitions have been derived from different viewpoints. Quality is most commonly described as providing superior value and confirming the stipulation through meeting or exceeding customers expectations. During the 1980s the rapid changes of customers in terms of their number, need, and purchasing attitude resulted in
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the intense emphasis on quality. People consider the quality of the products offered by the firm as the most important of all the tangible factors that affect their opinion about a firm. Consequently, the managers should start thinking that product quality should be a major focus and customers view of the firms product quality will be equal to the managers perception of their firms product quality. Hence, two constructs were identified to test prevalence of this attitude of managers towards their organizations quality as perceived by the managers (manager perceived product quality); and managers perception of the customers views about the firms product quality. Price sensitivity defines the way individual consumers react to price levels due to the changes in them. If the price goes up the highly price sensitive consumers will exhibit much less demand and vice versa, whereas consumers low in price sensitivity will not react as strongly to the price change. At an aggregated level, price sensitivity is often used as a synonym for price elasticity (Link, 1997). Sensitivity of demand refers to how much sensitive the volume demanded of a product or a service is to its price changes. Firms use sensitivity as a valuable strategic tool in pricing (Tucker, 1966). At the individual adopter level and for a potential buyer of any product, price sensitivity seems to be equivalent to the concept of price consciousness. Price consciousness has been defined as the degree to which an individual consumer is unwilling to pay a high price for a product and willing to give up from buying a product whose price is unacceptably high (Monroe, 1990). Price sensitivity is referred to be related to the price acceptability level (Lichtenstein, Peter, & William, 1988). Furthermore, the price conscious consumers have relatively narrow range of acceptable prices (Link, 1997). Promotion being one of the key 4Ps in the marketing mix (Dibb, Simkin, Pride, Ferrel,1994) plays an important role in market success. Through promotional activities firms communicate with customers in making them aware about the products and benefits they are serving to the market. In this sense, promotion is one side of the communication process with customers. Market research is the complementary part of the
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communication process in which suppliers seek to extract the information from consumers regarding their needs and wants. In this research, willingness-to-buy consists of the customers likelihood to shop, buy products, and recommend the store to others. These measures are similar to those used throughout the service literature (Baker, Levy, & Grewal, 1992). It is the assurance to measure the consumers willingness to buy user friendly PC peripheral products. It also refers to their willingness to pay higher prices for PC brands to enjoy the benefits of social image. It is not necessary that the respondents professing their willingness to buy PC peripheral products will react in the same manner in case of other products (Lampe & Gazda, 1995). The purpose of this research is to explore the aspects of customers willingness to buy PC peripherals products. In this study, the researchers will reveal which dimensions of willingness to buy are important to customers and will provide an insight into their expectations and perceptions of willingness to buy PC peripherals products in context of the Bangladeshi market Growing evidences support that willingness to buy is influenced by the brand name, product quality, price sensitivity, and promotion. These four very significant variables (brand name, product quality, price sensitivity, and promotion) will assist PC peripherals selling brands to plan and execute marketing strategies that will maximize their customers willingness to buy as well as profits. At present, PC peripherals manufacturers are coming up with new technologies and want their customers to buy their products and familiarize themselves with it. Factors related to brand name, product quality, price sensitivity, and promotion will provide those manufacturers with the strategic and financial insight on the buying patterns of customers. Furthermore, sound strategies can eventually help firms become more profitable and help them sustain a competitive advantage in their served markets (Hampton, 1993). Hence, the aim of this research is to aware the management personnel about the influence of the four very important factors over the customers willingness to buy PC peripherals products.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CUSTOMERS WILLINGNESS TO BUY 45
Conceptual Framework It is proposed that brand name, product quality, price sensitivity, and promotion are important in context of their relationships with willingness to buy. Based on the preceding literature review, the conceptual framework (figure 1) depicts the measured variables and their relationships in the presents study. In line with the conceptual links proposed between brand name, product quality, price sensitivity, promotion and willingness to buy, the following hypotheses are proposed for this study: 1. There is a relationship between brand name and willingness to buy in context of PC peripherals industry in Bangladesh. 2. There is a relationship between product quality and willingness to buy in context of PC peripherals industry in Bangladesh. 3. There is a relationship between price sensitivity and willingness to buy in context of PC peripherals industry in Bangladesh. 4. There is a relationship between promotion and willingness to buy in context of PC peripherals industry in Bangladesh.
Brand Name Product Quality Price Sensitivity Promotion Willingness to Buy
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Research Variables and their Relationships
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Method Sample The sample consisted of private university undergraduate students who had desktop PCs at their home. Data was collected from 205 university students belonging to universities located in Baridhara, Mohakhali, Banani, and Dhanmondi, areas of the metropolis. The researchers applied convenience sampling technique to collect the data. 82% of total respondents were male and 18% were female. In terms of age 71% belonged to the group 20-25, 23% belonged to 26-30, and 6% belonged to 31-40. Among them 71% were undergraduate students and rest of them were in the graduate program. Survey Instruments The items employed to measure brand name were developed by Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) and the reported reliability was 0.75. The items of product quality were developed by Garvin (1988) and have reliability of 0.80. The items employed to measure price sensitivity were developed by William and Anuchit (2002) and the reported reliability was 0.72. The items of promotion were developed by May (1971) and has a reliability 0.86. The items of willingness to buy were developed by Dodds et al. (1991) and the reported reliability was 0.94. Procedure A total of 205 university students were surveyed to collect information for this study. To collect the data from the respondents, a self-administered questionnaire was used. The participation was voluntary. If the participants wished to withdraw, they were free to do so at any time without providing any reason. After obtaining required permission from the University authorities, the researchers went to different classrooms and distributed the questionnaires to the students who were willing
to participate in the survey. A total of 230 questionnaires were distributed to the students among them 211 students returned the questionnaire. From there 205 questionnaires were used for the final study. Six questionnaires were deleted from the final study because too many answers were missing in those deleted questionnaire. Results In this study, the coefficient alphas for the different constructs were computed using the reliability procedure in SPSS (version 12.0). Table 1 indicates that the reliabilities of most constructs in this study fall within the acceptable range (0.60-0.80) (Nunnally, 1978). The researchers applied test-retest method to determine the reliability of the scale. The mean scores have been computed by equally weighting the mean scores of all items. On a five point scale mean score for Brand name is 4.34 (SD = .54). The mean score for Price sensitivity is 4.38 (SD = .58). The mean score for Product quality is 4.23 (SD= .64). The mean score for Promotion is 4.26 (SD =.60) and the mean score for Willingness to buy is 4.40 (SD =.46).
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and Reliability Coefficient of Brand name, Product quality, Price sensitivity, Promotion, and Willingness to buy (N=205) Scale Brand name Price sensitivity Product quality Promotion Willingness to buy No. of Items 4 3 4 3 5 0.75 0.69 0.70 0.61 0.72 M 4.34 4.38 4.23 4.26 4.40 SD 0.54 0.58 0.64 0.60 0.46
Correlation Analysis A correlation analysis was conducted on all the variables to explore the relationship between the variables. The results of the correlational analysis are depicted in Table 2. It examines the correlation among Brand name, Product quality, Price sensitivity, Promotion, and Willingness to buy. The variables
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which significantly correlated with Willingness to buy were Brand name ( = .54, p<.01), Price sensitivity ( =.63, p<.01), product quality ( =.51, p<.05), and promotion ( =.57, p<.01).
Table 2 Correlation Matrix for Brand name, Product Quality, Price sensitivity, Promotion, and Willingness to buy
Variables Brand name Price Sensitivity Product Quality Promotion Willingness to Buy **p < 0.01
Brand name -
Price Sensitivity .56** -
Product Quality .32** .49** -
Promotion .57** .48** .43** -
Willingness to Buy .54** .63** .51** .57** -
Stepwise Regression Analysis Stepwise regression was conducted to asses the relationship between variables. Hanushek and Jackson (1977) suggested that stepwise regression is a useful procedure in determining the variable which is most significant in explaining the behavior of the dependent variable. In this analysis, independent variables are individually admitted to the model according to their marginal ability to explain the response variable. If the F value and T value associated with any independent variable within the model is found to be insignificant, the associated variable is removed from the analysis. Thus, the stepwise regression procedure is both a selection and an elimination algorithm. Table 3 depicts that in PC peripherals industry, price sensitivity (p <.001), promotion (p <.01), and product quality (p <.05) were found to be statistically significantly related to willingness to buy. Brand name failed to enter into the regression equation, which indicates it was not significantly related to consumers willingness to buy like the other variables. These results provide a partial support for hypothesis.
The three predictor variables together explained 52% of the variance in willingness to buy. Price sensitivity, promotion, and product quality explained about 40%, 9% and 3% respectively of the variance in willingness to buy.
Table 3 Stepwise Regression on Willingness to buy Variable Step 1 Price sensitivity Step 2 Price sensitivity Promotion R2 .40 .49 R .08 .37 .26 .02 .31 .22 .13 .07 .06 .06 .40*** .29** .19* .06 .06 .47*** .34*** B .50 SEB .06 .64***
.52 Step 3 Price sensitivity Promotion Product quality *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
Discussion and Conclusion The results of stepwise regression analysis depicts that in PC peripherals industry price sensitivity, promotion, and product quality were found to be statistically significantly related with willingness to buy. Brand name failed to enter differentially into the regression equation, which indicates it was not significant enough to influence the consumers willingness to buy. In context of Bangladesh, brand name does not differentially add to the best prediction equation in consumers willingness to buy PC peripherals products. Therefore, firms selling PC peripherals should concentrate only on clone products. Firms producing PC peripherals need to improve performance, longevity, and range of color of the products. According to the finding, price sensitivity seems to be a very important factor. Hence, if the companies can reduce price without compromising on the quality, then the demand for that PC peripheral will increase. Study results indicate promotion to be an indispensable factor for buying PC peripherals product.
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At present, there are not that many promotional activities on the part of the PC peripheral sellers. Consumers obtain PC peripherals promotion related information only from the print media (Magazines, Newspapers). Thus, PC peripheral sellers should come up with promotional activities which will induce the consumers to buy more PC peripherals. The present study is significant in various aspects as the findings can be useful for the vendors of PC peripherals in devising a strategy which will capitalize profits. It can also be useful for further research in a comprehensive context because this study is restricted to only a small group of PC peripheral buyers within the Dhaka City only. This study will trigger future researchers to conduct research in the similar area and beyond, incorporating a wide range of variables which are also relevant to the willingness to buy aspect of PC peripherals. References Adam, E. E. Jr., & Swamidas P. M. (1989). Assessing operations management. Management, 15, 181-203. Ambler, T. (1997). Do brands benefit consumers? International Journal of Advertising 16(3), 167-198. Baker, J., Levy, M., & Grewal, D. (1992). An experimental approach to making retail store environmental decisions. Journal of Retailing, 68, 445-60. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2005). Sectoral Statistics: Trade & Industry. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Bennett, P. D. (1988). Dictionary of Marketing Terms, American Marketing Association. Chicago: IL. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16 (3), 297-334. Deming, J. E. (1994). The System of Profound Knowledge, in The New Economics, MIT, Centre for Advanced Educational Services, 2nd edition, Cambridge: MA. Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis: Quality, Productivity and Competitive Position. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dibb, S., Simkin, L., Pride, W. M., & Ferrel, O. C. (1994). Marketing Concepts and Strategies (2nd European Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Dobni, D., & Zinkhan G. M. (1990). In search of brand image: A foundation analysis. Advances in Consumer Research, 1, 110-119. Dodds, W. B. (1991). In search of value: how price and store name information influence buyers' product perceptions. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 8 (Spring), 15-24. Garvin, D. A. (1988). Managing Quality: The Strategic and Competitive Edge. Toronto: Maxwell Macmillan. Hampton, G. (1993). Gap analysis of college student satisfaction as a measure of professional service quality. Journal of Professional Service Marketing, 9 (1), 11528. Hanushek, E. A., & Jackson, J. E. (1977). Statistical Methods for Social Scientists. New York: Academic Press. Jacoby, J., & Chestnut, R. W. (1978). Brand Loyalty Measurement and Management. New York: Wiley Lampe, M., & Gazda, G. M. (1995). Green Marketing in Europe and the United States: an Evolving Business and Society Interface. International Business Review, 4(3), 295-312. Lichtenstein, D. R., Peter H. B., & William C. B. (1988). Correlates of price Acceptibility. Journal of Consumer Research , 15 (September), 243-252. Link, F. (1997). Diffusion dynamics and the pricing of innovations, PhD thesis. Lund University: Lund May, E. G. (1971). Image Evaluation of a department store: Techniques for conducting the study. Cambridge: Marketing Science Institute. Monroe, K. B. (1990). Pricing: Making Profitable Decisions, NY: McGraw-Hill. Montoya-Weiss, M., & Calantone, R. (1994). Determinants of New Product Performance: A Review and MetaAnalysis. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 11 (5) (November), 397-417. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd edition). NY: McGraw Hill.
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Tucker, S. (1966). Pricing for Higher Profit: Criteria, Method, Applications, NY: McGraw-Hill. William, C., & Anuchit, S. (2002). Service Quality in the Thai Telecommunication Industry: A Tool for Achieving a Sustainable Advantage. Management Decision, 4 (1).
Normative Beliefs about Aggression and Retaliation: Association with Aggressive Behaviour and Anticipatory Self-censure
Naumana Amjad* Martin Skinner
Psychology Department, University of Warwick, UK

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the anticipatory role of self-censure in regulating aggressive actions as proposed in Banduras social cognitive theory. Association between aggressive behaviour, normative beliefs about aggression and self-censure was examined in a sample of adolescents girls and boys (N=118). Normative beliefs with their sub-types (extreme retaliation, justified retaliation, general aggression) were significantly and positively associated with aggressive behaviour confirming earlier research. Self-censure was significantly and negatively associated with retaliation beliefs as well as aggressive behaviour indicating that higher the beliefs about aggression and aggressive behaviour lower the feelings of self-criticism for ones aggression. Mediation analysis were carried to test the hypothesis that effect of beliefs on aggressive behaviour was mediated through self-censure. Self-censure mediated effect of excessive retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour but did not mediate the effect of equal retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour. Females reported more self-censure than males and reported significantly lower frequency than males for certain types of aggressive acts such as hitting, slapping and swearing. Self-censure mediated sex differences in these specific acts. The findings are discussed with their theoretical and practical implications
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Naumana Amjad, Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail: naumana_a@hotmail.com
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Two essential psychological mechanisms implicated in regulation of harmful behaviour towards others are (a) moral beliefs or standards of conduct and (b) self-censure (Bandura, 1989, 1991). It has been suggested that moral beliefs exert an influence on behaviour through negative self-reactions such as self-censure and self-reproach (Bandura, 1991). Although there is substantial evidence on standards of conduct e.g., beliefs about legitimacy of aggression and their association with aggressive behaviour (Erdley, & Asher, 1998; Guerra & Slaby, 1990; Huesmann, & Guerra, 1997; Slaby, & Guerra, 1988; Zelli, Dodge, Lochman, & Laird, 1999) role of self-censure has received less attention (e.g., Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996). There is a distinction between general aggression beliefs, and retaliation beliefs. Association of these types of beliefs with aggressive behaviour and self-censure has not been extensively examined. A possible mediating or moderating role of self-censure also needs to be investigated. Intervention initiatives for aggressive behaviour can benefit from an exploration of these aspects. This study aimed to investigate association of sub-types of normative beliefs about aggression with aggressive behaviour and self-censure as well as verify the proposed anticipatory role of self-censure in regulating aggressive actions. It also aimed to examine gender differences in aggressive behaviour and self-censure. It has been proposed that children and adolescents have multitude of opportunities to adopt for themselves as standards of conduct the belief that aggression is an acceptable response in a variety of situations (e.g., It's O.K. to hit someone if he/she annoys you) (Bandura, 1973; Parke, & Slaby, 1983). On the basis of anticipated negative or positive consequences, children also learn to discriminate between acceptable and unacceptable standards of behaviour and to regulate their actions accordingly (Bandura, 1989; Huesmann, 1988; Perry, Perry, & Boldizar, 1990). The anticipated negative circumstances e.g., external sanctions and punishment are particularly salient in guiding the behaviour of younger children whereas with age people learn to refrain from behaving aggressively even in the absence of external sanctions merely
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through the self-generated reactions of self-censure (Perry, Perry, & Boldizar, 1990). They pointed out, If children see that certain forms of aggression in certain situations and towards certain targets are inappropriate (e.g., physical aggression towards females or aggression against someone whose frustrating behaviour is not intentional), they may avoid acting aggressively under these circumstances for fear of self-censure (p.136). Although an anticipatory and deterring role of self-censure has been suggested by both Bandura (1989) and Perry and colleagues (1990) it is not yet operationalzed. Hence there is hardly any measure of self-censure in literature. Negative selfreactions are sometimes called guilt, self-censure, negative selfevaluations and feeling bad (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996; Campbell, Muncer, McManus, & Woodhouse, 1999; Crane-Ross, Tisak, & Tisak, 1998). Self- censure means criticising oneself for an act one has done. Anticipatory selfcensure would be an expectation of self-criticism if one acted in a certain way (Bandura, 1989). According to Bandura, this ability or function underpins self-regulation and monitoring of behaviour. Bandura and Walters (1959) found that assaultive delinquents expressed little or no self-censure about their violent conduct. Crane-Ross, Tisak and Tisak, (1998) found that beliefs that aggression was a legitimate response were highly correlated with positive self evaluations following aggression and aggressive behaviour was predicted by beliefs and values about aggression. There is also empirical support for the proposed association between beliefs about legitimacy of aggression and negative self-reactions. Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara and Pastorelli (1996) found that the tendency to feel guilt and remorse was moderately associated with justifications of antisocial and aggressive behaviour. Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pastorelli, Cermak and Rosza (2001) found that negative affectivity following ones own aggression was a key factor in enhancing need for reparation which was positively associated with pro-social behaviour. Some studies indicate that feeling bad about ones own aggression (expressive beliefs) and having a positive view of aggression (instrumental beliefs) are
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negatively associated (Archer, 2004; Archer & Haigh, 1997a; Campbell, & Muncer, 1987). Expressive beliefs about aggression, such as feeling bad and upset about ones aggression are also negatively associated with trait aggression (Archer, & Haigh, 1999). This review indicates that negative self-reactions are associated with aggressive behaviour as well as with attitudes and beliefs about aggression though very few studies reviewed have specifically addressed the interaction of beliefs, self-censure and aggressive behaviour. There is also scant empirical evidence for anticipatory role of self-censure. Script model of Huesmann (1998) suggests a direct link between knowledge structures i.e., normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behaviour. The internalized norms or normative beliefs are seen as cognitions that an individual holds about acceptability or unacceptability of certain types of behaviour (Bandura, 1989; Huesmann, 1988; Guerra, & Slaby, 1990; Zumkley, 1984). It has been suggested that they serve to regulate aggressive behaviour by defining the range of allowable and prohibited actions and play an important role in screening inappropriate behavioural scripts and stimulating use of appropriate scripts. They may also affect emotional reaction to provocations (Guerra, Huesmann, & Hanish, 1995; Huesmann, 1998). Normative beliefs can be situation-specific e.g., It is okay to hit others if they hit you first or general e.g., It is generally okay to hit others (Huesmann, & Guerra, 1997). The situation-specific beliefs are related to retaliation, situations in which one is provoked. Zelli, Dodge, Lochman, & Laird, (1999) found that retaliation was approved more than general aggression. Empirical studies also provide evidence that acts of retaliation are seen as more appropriate than acts of unprovoked aggression (Forgas, Brown, & Menyhart, 1980; KeltikangasJarvinen, Terave, & Pakaslahti, 1999; Legerspetz, & Weston, 1980) and unprovoked aggressive acts evoke more negative reactions such as anger and counteraggression since they violate norms of proper conduct (Rule, & Ferguson, 1984; Zumkley, 1984). Combining the information both strands of literature and proposed links from two theories, it can be assumed that selfcensure may be differentially related to beliefs about aggression
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in general and beliefs about retaliation or provoked aggression. Literature shows that normative beliefs are associated with aggressive behaviour (Bellmore, Witkow, Graham, & Juvonen, 2005; Dodge, Laird, & Lochman, 2002; Henry, Guerra, Huesmann, Tolan, VanAcker, & Eron 2000; Huesmann & Guerra, 1997; Werner, & Nixon, 2005; Zelli, Dodge, Lochman, & Laird, 1999). However association between anticipatory selfcensure and these types of normative beliefs and their combined or unique effect on aggressive behaviour has not been examined before. The review of empirical studies on normative beliefs indicates that most of earlier studies have been conducted in the U.S. and there is little evidence from other countries on normative beliefs about aggression among children and adolescents (e.g., Archer, 2004 b) There is a need to investigate normative beliefs about retaliation among children in the UK since the school concerns with aggression in schools are increasingly being voiced (e.g., Elsea, 2004). The present study examined association of normative beliefs about aggression with aggressive behaviour and anticipatory self-censure among children and adolescents in the UK. It sought to verify two different theoretical stances; in line with Banduras model, it was hypothesized that retaliation beliefs, and general aggression beliefs will be associated with anticipatory self-censure as well as with aggressive behaviour and the effect of normative beliefs on aggressive behaviour will be mediated by anticipatory self-censure. In line with script theory of Huesmann (1988) it was hypothesized that selfcensure will not mediate effect of equal retaliation beliefs and excessive retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour. Finally gender differences in self-censure, aggressive behaviour and sub-types of normative beliefs about aggression were also examined. In view of earlier evidence that females report more negative self evaluation as a result of aggression as well as higher expressive beliefs about aggression than males (Archer, 2004b; Crane-Ross, Tisak, & Tisak, 1998) it was expected that females would report more anticipatory selfcensure than males. Sex differences in normative beliefs about
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aggression and retaliation have been reported before (e.g., Huesmann, & Guerra, 1997; Henry et al., 2000). Gender differences in aggressive behaviour have been reliably reported in aggression research, though they are not large, vary according to age and tend to vary according to method of assessment (see Archer, 2004a for review) and are attenuated by presence of provocation (Bettencourt, & Miller, 1996). Sex differences on all variables were analysed to add to the existing literature. Method Participants One hundred Eighteen children and adolescents (60 boys, 58 girls) participated in the study. Fifty participants (age range = 9-11 years, M = 10.5, SD = 0.76, 27) were studying in a primary school in West midlands, England. Sixty-eight adolescents (age range 16-19, M = 17.4, SD = .85) were studying in A-level (equivalent to intermediate in Pakistan and high school in America). A wider age range was taken so that interaction of age and gender could be explored. The schools student population represented the ethnic mix in west midlands. Sixty percent of participants were white native British, fifteen percent were Indian British, ten percent were Pakistani British, and seven percent were of Caribbean origin. Six percent were classed as international (Chinese, Bangladeshi, Russian, Arab, Pakistani and Latin American). Measures Normative Beliefs about Aggression Scale Normative Beliefs about Aggression Scale (NOBAGS) is a 20-item scale developed by Guerra and Huesmann (1997) measuring beliefs about retaliation (12 items) and general beliefs about aggression (8 items). Beliefs about retaliation include items such as Suppose a girl shouts at another girl it is ok for her to shout back and suppose a boy hits another boy it is ok for him to hit him back. Half the items are worded in the negative (it is wrong to) and half the items are worded in positive (it is ok to) to control effect of positive response bias. The response options in this 4-point scale are, 1 = completely
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wrong, 2= somewhat wrong, 3 = somewhat O.K, 4 = completely O.K. Higher score indicates beliefs more approving of aggression. The Cronbachs alpha coefficients reported are .86 for the overall scale and .82 and .80 for retaliation and general beliefs items respectively (Huesmann, & Guerra, 1997). NOBAGS has been reliably used with children, adolescents and adults in the USA and other countries (Archer, 2004, Britain; Bender, 2000; Huesmann, & Guerra, USA, 1997; Krah, & Mller, Germany, 2004; Shechtman, & Basheer, 2005, Israel; Amjad, Pakistan, 2006). The Cronbach alpha coefficients reported are; .86 for the overall scale and .82 and .80 for retaliation and general beliefs items respectively (Huesmann, & Guerra, 1997). Amjad has performed principal components analyses (2006, 2007) on this scale and argues that the retaliation beliefs items can be further divided into equal retaliation beliefs (Seven items, Cronbach Alpha Coefficient = .82) and excessive retaliation beliefs (Five items, Cronbach Alpha Coefficient= .78). Excessive retaliation beliefs have items, which suggest that it is acceptable to retaliate in excess of original provocation (if a boy shouts at John, it is ok for John to hit him, and, it is ok to hit a girl if she hits you). Equal retaliation beliefs indicate approval of retaliation, which matches the provocation (it is ok to shout if someone shouts at you, and it is ok to hit back if someone hits you). These three sub-scale scores were used in present study. Direct aggression scale Ten items were used to measure physical and verbal aggression. These were a modified version of physical and verbal aggression items in Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale (Bjorkqvist, sterman, & Kaukiainen, 1992). The scale has been used in non-western countries like India (Bjrkqvist, sterman, Oommen, & Lagerspetz, 2001). Five items measured physical aggressive acts (hitting, pushing, throwing something, pulling hair and slapping,) and five items measured verbal and non-verbal aggression (shouting, swearing, name-calling, rude gestures, and threatening). The children indicated on a fivepoint scale (0 = never, 4 = very often) how often they carried
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out these acts. Higher scores on the scale show higher frequency of aggressive behaviour. Anticipatory self-censure Since no measure of anticipatory self-censure was available in previous studies, a new measure was developed. The definition of self-censure given by Bandura and other authors (e.g., Perry, Perry, & Boldizar, 1990) was used to develop the items. In addition the items used to assess feeling bad or guilt (retrospective negative feelings about ones act) used in previous studies (Crane-Ross, Tisak, & Tisak, 1998) were also used for as guidance for phrasing items for new scale. The items for this measure were also drawn from responses to open ended questions given to 20 individuals who belonged to same age range as the participants of this study but were not included in this sample. They were asked to indicate how they would feel about themselves when they thought of behaving aggressively (hitting someone or shouting at someone). All the responses were turned into items (15 in total) and pilot tested with 15 persons obtaining lowest scores on a measure of aggressive behaviour given out in a group of students. Some items were deleted due to ambiguity indicated by participants and some were repetition of the same idea. The final 6 items were; I would feel bad and upset with myself if shouted at someone. I would feel bad and upset with myself if I hit someone. I would tell myself off for saying nasty things to someone. I would be unhappy with myself for having pushed someone. I would tell myself off if I got into a fight. I dislike the thought of getting into an argument. Response options ranged from 5 = completely agree to 1=completely disagree. Higher scores represented more negative feelings.
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Procedure Written consent from school was obtained and school administration then obtained consent from the parents. Children and adolescents were also asked for their consent and were assured that no names were required, their answers were only required for research purposes and they could decline to take part if they desired. The children were tested in their classrooms in a relaxed atmosphere. All measures were given together and order of each measure within the set of measures was counterbalanced. All participants were thanked for their participation. Correlation analyses were used to test the association between variables. Partial correlations were additionally used to test the mediation hypotheses. Regression analysis was used to test the prediction of aggressive behaviour from types of beliefs. Results Reliability estimates For normative beliefs three scores were computed for each participant: general beliefs, excessive retaliation, and equal retaliation. The Cronbachs alpha coefficients for the three sub-scales are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Cronbachs Alpha Coefficients of Normative Beliefs about Aggression sub-scales by gender and age group (N = 118) Total Sample Aggression Equal retaliation Extreme retaliation Self Censure DIAS .82 .80 .81 .75 .78 Girls (n=58) .79 .85 .72 Boys (n=60) .84 .84 .86 Younger People (n=50) .84 .88 .89 Older People (n=68) .80 .75 .73 -
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Table 2 Correlations between aggressive behaviour, normative beliefs sub-scales and self-censure (N = 118) Excessive ret. Gen. Beliefs Equal ret. .32** .38** Self Censure -.19* -.03 -.23** -
Excessive ret. .46** Gen. Beliefs Equal ret. Self Censure *p<05, **p< .01 Key: Excess. ret = beliefs about excessive retaliation, equal. ret = beliefs about equal retaliation, gen. beliefs = general beliefs about aggression, agg. beh = aggressive behaviour.
Correlations between variables and mediation analysis Correlations between normative beliefs, self-censure and aggressive behaviour are presented in Table 2. Equal retaliation beliefs, excessive retaliation beliefs and general aggression beliefs were significantly and positively associated with aggressive behaviour. Equal retaliation beliefs and excessive retaliation beliefs were inversely correlated with anticipated self-censure. Beliefs about general aggression were not associated with self-censure. The study tested the hypothesis that self-censure would mediate the effect of normative beliefs on aggressive behaviour. Kenny, Kashy, and Bolger (1998) described four steps to determine whether mediation occurs. Step 1 is to show a significant correlation between predictor and outcome (here between retaliation beliefs and aggressive behaviour). Table 2 shows a significant correlation between equal retaliation beliefs and aggressive behaviour excessive retaliation beliefs and aggressive behaviour and general aggression beliefs and aggressive behaviour. Step two is to show a significant correlation between predictor and mediator (here between beliefs and self-censure). Two sub-types of normative beliefs, excessive retaliation beliefs and equal retaliation beliefs were significantly and negatively correlated with self-censure. General aggression beliefs were not correlated with self-censure
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therefore they were not used in mediation analysis. Step 3 is that the mediator affects the outcome when predictor is controlled. Consistent with Step 3, partial correlation between self-censure and aggressive behaviour remained significant when excessive retaliation beliefs were controlled for. However self-censure was no longer associated with aggressive behaviour when equal retaliation beliefs were controlled. This result showed that self-censure mediated effect of excessive retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour but did not mediate the effect of equal retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour. Step 4 determines whether partial or complete mediation has occurred. Complete mediation is indicated when effect of predictor (here excessive retaliation beliefs) is completely removed when mediator (self-censure) is controlled. The data failed to meet this criterion of mediation as the partial correlation between excessive beliefs and aggressive behaviour remained significant when self-censure was controlled. Therefore it can be concluded that self-censure partially mediated the effect of excessive retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour but did not mediate the effect of equal retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour. It was also tested if association between beliefs and self-censure would remain significant controlling for aggressive behaviour. The correlation between the three types of beliefs and self-censure was no longer significant when aggressive behaviour was controlled. This finding suggests that beliefs evoke anticipation of self-censure only if people behave aggressively.
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Sex differences
Table 3 Descriptive analysis (means and standard deviations) for all measures according to age and sex (N=118) Self Censure n M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD (58) 1.40 .54 2.54 .59 1.53 .61 1.38 .32 3.33 .77 Female Younger (26) 1.38 .44 2.46 .74 1.49 .56 1.35 .42 3.30 .79 Older (32) 1.41 .46 2.60 .44 1.56 .72 1.41 .22 3.35 .76 (60) 1.61 .69 2.60 .70 1.41 .47 1.43 .46 3.02 .59 Male Younger (24) 1.87 .84 2.83 .78 1.57 .69 1.61 .56 2.95 .70 Older (36) 1.43 .51 2.42 .68 1.40 .40 1.30 .34 3.06 .45 Key: Excess. ret = beliefs about excessive retaliation, equal. ret = beliefs about equal retaliation, gen. beliefs = general beliefs about aggression, agg. beh = aggressive behaviour. Excess.ret Equal ret Gen.Beh Agg.Beh
A two-way analysis of variance was carried out to examine sex and age differences in sub-types of beliefs, aggressive behaviour and self-censure. The dependent variables were aggressive behaviour, equal retaliation beliefs, excessive retaliation beliefs and self-censure. The independent variables were sex and age group. The multivariate tests showed that there was a significant main effect of sex on combined dependent variables, F (3,112)= 21.34, p< .001, Wilks Lambda= .63. There was also a significant sex and age interaction on combined dependent variables, F (3,112)= 10.80, p<. 001, Wilks Lambda= .77. However, when the results for dependent variables were considered separately, two significant differences between males and females appeared to be in selfcensure and excessive retaliation beliefs. Females reported more self-censure than boys (F (1,117)= 5.98, p< .001, d= -.36). Females also reported less approval of excessive retaliation than boys (F (1, 117) = 5.87, p< .05, d = -.46). There was no significant difference in overall aggressive behaviour. There was also a significant age and sex interaction in excessive retaliation beliefs, equal retaliation beliefs, and aggressive behaviour. Examination of means indicated that
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Table 4 Sex differences in types of aggressive acts (females = 58, males =60) Aggressive Act Hit Female Male Push Female Male Throw something Female Male Swear Female Male Name-calling Female Male Threaten Female Male Show Finger Female Male Shout Female Male Slap/Punch Female Male *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001 M 1.16 1.28 1.22 1.35 1.50 1.47 1.14 1.38 1.40 1.37 1.43 1.57 0.93 1.20 2.14 1.78 1.09 1.33 SD 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.71 0.53 0.70 0.51 0.71 0.52 0.58 0.50 0.67 0.41 0.60 0.66 0.76 0.47 0.60 t
4.07*
2.38*
0.07
2.38*
0.19
0.20
10.4***
19.2***
9.33**
Younger males were significantly higher in excessive retaliation beliefs than all other groups (younger females, older females and older males). They were also higher in equal retaliation beliefs than older males, d = .58) younger females (d = .48) and older females (d = .36). Younger males were also significantly higher in aggressive behaviour than all other groups (F (1,114) = 5.79, p < .05).
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Since there was no significant sex difference in overall aggressive behaviour, sex differences in various types of aggressive acts (represented by individual items on DIAS) were analysed next through an independent t-test. The item-wise mean, standard deviations, and t-values are presented in Table 4. The results show, the boys reported more slapping/punching, swearing and showing finger whereas girls reported more shouting. The analysis carried out so far showed that females reported more self-censure than males and were significantly different from males in certain types of aggressive acts. Further correlation analysis was carried out to test the hypothesis that sex differences in specific aggressive acts was mediated by selfcensure. An overall correlation between gender and types of aggressive acts as well partial correlations between gender and aggressive acts controlling for self-censure is given in Table 5.
Table 5 Correlations between gender and specific aggressive acts (N = 118) Sex Partial correlations controlling for selfcensure * p < .01. Slap/punch .22* .16 Swear .19* .14 Show finger .25* .22* shout -.24* -.26*
As the Table shows, two types of aggressive acts, slap/punch and swearing were no longer significantly related to gender once self-censure is controlled. This supports the hypothesis that self-censure mediates sex differences in these specific acts. Two types of aggressive acts, showing finger and shouting were not mediated by self-censure as they remained significantly related to sex even when self-censure was controlled. Discussion The present study was conducted to understand the relationship between anticipated self-censure, aggressive behaviour and three types of normative beliefs about aggression (Excessive retaliation beliefs, equal retaliation
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beliefs and beliefs about general aggression). The results revealed that aggressive behaviour, normative beliefs about aggression and self-censure were associated. All three subtypes of normative beliefs were positively associated with aggressive behaviour. This finding is supported by Huesmanns theory of normative beliefs and confirms earlier research findings (Henry, Guerra, Huesmann, Tolan, VanAcker, & Eron, 2000; Huesmann, 1998; Huesmann, & Guerra, 1997; Zelli, Dodge, Lochman, & Laird, 1999). Self-censure was negatively associated with beliefs as well as with aggressive behaviour. This indicates that higher the beliefs supporting aggression and retaliation lower will be the anticipated selfcensure. Bandura (1991) posited that standards of conduct regulate aggressive behaviour through negative self-reactions such as self-censure and self-reproach. Mediation analysis showed that self-censure partially mediated the effect of excessive retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour but did not mediate at all effect of equal retaliation beliefs on aggressive behaviour. This suggests that even when an individual holds the belief that excessive retaliation is legitimate, self-censure is anticipated and therefore regulation of aggressive responding occurs to some extent. It may be the case that self-censure is disregarded when retaliation is believed to be justified. It has been suggested that retaliation is underpinned by the conviction that culprit ought to be punished and a retaliation norm is exercised when people react to provocation (Zumkley, 1984). Further analysis showed that beliefs completely mediated the effect of self-censure on aggressive behaviour. This supports the assertion in Banduras theory that negative self-reactions are experienced only if one thinks that aggression is wrong. On the other hand, analysis also revealed that self-censure was no longer significantly associated with beliefs about aggression if aggressive behaviour was controlled. This suggests that people only anticipate self-censure if they behave aggressively and contrary to their beliefs. This does not support the anticipatory role of self-censure but rather a retrospective function.
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Females reported more self-censure than males. This is also in line with earlier research. In previous studies women were typically found to be higher on expressive beliefs than men (e.g., Campbell, Sapochnik, & Muncer, 1997) and negative self-evaluations after aggression (Crane-Ross, Tisak, & Tisak, 1998). Expressive beliefs represent a persons negative evaluation of aggressive actions, loss of control in an aggressive incident and subsequent negative self-reactions (Archer, 2004; Campbell, Muncer, & Coyle, 1992, Tapper, & Boulton, 2002). A partial correlation between gender and specific types of aggressive acts showed that self-censure mediated sex differences in two aggressive acts, slap/punch and swearing but it did not mediate sex difference in shouting and showing finger. It may be the case that swearing and slapping is seen as gender normative for boys but not for girls (Crick, Bigbee, & Howes, 1996) and therefore may be regulated through self-censure i.e., girls anticipating feeling bad if they slapped someone. On the other shouting for girls and showing finger for boys may be milder acts that do not cause enough self-censure for them to inhibit these acts. An interesting age and gender interaction was also observed. The younger boys were more aggressive and reported more excessive retaliation beliefs than all other groups. This indicates that with age boys may become socialized to exhibit less overt aggression and hold milder aggression supporting attitudes. This was also found in an earlier study by the author (Amjad, 2006). The self-censure measured in this study was supposed to be anticipatory; the items specified that respondents were to indicate how they would feel if they behaved aggressively. This measure correlated negatively with beliefs about aggression. This lends support to Banduras assertion that ones moral standards may evoke self-censure in anticipation when aggressive action is considered (Bandura, 1989). He states that fear of external sanctions as well as fear of self-censure work in anticipation (1991, p.19) in a constant self-monitoring of social action in accordance with ones moral beliefs. However the relation between beliefs and self-censure was no longer significant when aggressive behaviour was controlled. This may
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be due to the fact that people only anticipated self-censure if they behaved aggressively, in which case the self-censure is retrospective rather than anticipatory. This can also be due to covariation of the three variables and needs to be addressed in future studies. The flip side of this idea is that people who rarely behave aggressively may have a high degree of anticipated selfcensure. Banduras concept of anticipatory self-censure may be reflected in people known for their peaceful and non-violent ideology such as prophets (e.g., Jesus Christ, Muhammad), Ghandi, and Dalai Lama who refrained from retaliation and were quick to reprimand themselves for thoughts of revenge. The common individuals who are exceptionally peace loving and non-aggressive may also exercise a high degree of selfcensure. Empirical studies have rarely studied non-aggressive individuals and future investigations should address this gap. References Amjad, N. (2006). Eye for an Eye-A cross-cultural investigation of Normative Beliefs about Aggression. In Contemporary Research on Aggression, International Society for Research on Aggression. Finland: Abo Akademi University, 240-251. Amjad, N. (2007). Role of moral beliefs in aggression-an investigation across two cultures. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Warwick, Library, 72-75. Amjad, N. (2007). Do normative beliefs about aggression follow a moral rationale? Paper presented at Symposium on Cross-cultural Psychology, Government College University, Lahore. Pakistan. March, 2007. Archer, J. (2004a). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291-322. Archer, J. (2004b). Which attitudinal measures predict trait aggression? Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 4760. Archer, J., & Haigh, A. (1997a). Do beliefs about aggression predict self-reported levels of aggression? British Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 83-105.
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Bandura, A. (1973). A Social Learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1989). Self-regulation of motivation and action through internal standards and goal systems. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 19-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bandura, A. (1991). Social-cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behaviour and development: Theory, research and applications (Vol. 1, pp. 71-129). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, V. G., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement in the Exercise of Moral Agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 364-374. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1959). Adolescent aggression. New York: Ronald Press. Bellmore, A. D., Witkow, M. R., Graham, S., & Juvonen, J. (2005). From beliefs to behavior: The mediating role of hostile response selection in predicting aggression, Aggressive Behavior, 31, 453-472. Bjrkqvist, K., sterman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). The Development of Direct and Indirect Aggressive strategies in Males and Females. In K. Bjrkqvist, & P. Niemel, (Eds.). Of mice and woman: aspects of female aggression (pp. 5164). Toronto: Academic Press. Bjrkqvist, K., sterman, K., Oomen, T. K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (2001). Physical, verbal, and indirect aggression among Hindu, Muslim and Sikh adolescents in India. In Martinez (Ed.), Prevention and control of aggression and the impact on its victims (pp.2-10). NY: Kluwer Academic Publisher. Campbell, A., & Muncer, S. (1987). Models of anger and aggression in the social talk of women and men. Journal of the Theory of Social Behavior, 17, 489511. Campbell, A., Muncer, S., & Coyle, E. (1992). Social representations of aggression as an explanation of
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gender differences: A preliminary study. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 95108. Campbell, A., Muncer, S., McManus, I. C., & Woodhouse, D. (1999). Instrumental and expressive representations of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 435444. Campbell, A., Sapochnik, M., & Muncer, S. (1997). Sex differences in aggression: Does social representation mediate forms of aggression? British Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 161-171. Caprara, G. V., Barbarnelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Cermak, I., & Rosza, S. (2001). Facing guilt: Role of negative affectivity, need for reparation, and fear of punishment in leading to prosocial behavior and aggression. European Journal of Personality, 15, 219-237. Crane-Ross, D., Tisak, M. S., & Tisak, J. (1998). Aggression and conventional rule violation among adolescents: Social reasoning predictors of social behaviour. Aggressive Behavior, 24, 347-365. Crick, N. R., Bigbee, M. A., & Howes, C. (1996). Gender differences in children's normative beliefs about aggression: how do I hurt thee? Let me count the ways. Child Development. 67, 1003-1014. Dodge, K. A., Laird, R., & Lochman, J. E. (2002). Multidimensional Latent-Construct Analysis of Children's Social Information Processing Patterns: Correlations with Aggressive Behavior Problems. Psychological Assessment, 14 (1), 60-73. Elsea, M. (2004). Bullied at school, scared on the streets. Paper presented at XVI World Meeting of the International Society for Research on Aggression, Greece. Forgas, J. P., Brown, L. B., & Menyhart, J. (1980). Dimensions of aggression: The perception of aggressive episodes. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 215-227. Guerra, N. G., & Slaby, R. G. (1990). Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: 2. Intervention. Developmental Psychology, 26, 269-277.
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Guerra, N. G., Huesmann, L. R., & Hanish, L. (1995). The role of normative beliefs in childrens social behavior. In N. Eisenberg (ED.), Review of personality and social psychology, development and social psychology: The interface (pp. 140-158). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Henry, D., Guerra, N., Huesmann, R., Tolan, P., VanAcker, R., & Eron, L. (2000). Normative influences on aggression in urban elementary school classrooms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 59-81. Huesmann, L. R. (1988). An information processing model for the development of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 13-24. Huesmann, L. R. (1994). Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives, New York: Plenum press. Huesmann, L. R. (1998). The role of social information processing and cognitive schema in the acquisition of habitual aggressive behaviour. In R. G. Geen and E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Human aggression, theories, research and implications for social policy (pp. 73-108), London: Academic press. Huesmann, L. R., Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1984). Stability of aggression over time and generations. Developmental Psychology, 20, 11201134. Huesmann, L. R., Guerra, N., Miller, L., & Zelli, A. (1992). The role of social norms in the development of aggressive behavior. In H. Zumkley & A. Frazek (Eds.), Socialization and Aggression (pp. 139-152), New York: Springer. Huesmann, L. R., & Guerra, N. G. (1997). Children's normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and social psychology, 72, 408419. Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., Terave, T., & Pakaslahti, L. (1999). Moral Reasoning among Estonian and Finnish Adolescents: A comparison of individualistic and collectivist settings. Journal of Cross cultural psychology, 30, 267-290.
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Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social Psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.). The handbook of social psychology (pp. 233-265). New York: Oxford University Press. Lagerspetz, K.M. J., & Westman, M. (1980). Moral Approval of aggressive acts: a preliminary investigation. Aggressive Behavior, 6, 119-130. Parke, R. D., & Slaby, R. G. (1983). The development of aggression. In E. M. Perry, D. G., Perry, L. C., & Boldizar, G. P. (1990). Learning of aggression. In M. Lewis., & S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp 135-146). New York: Plenum. Rule, B. G., & Ferguson, T. J. (1984). Moral evaluation of aggressive interactions. In A. Mummendey (Ed.), Social Psychology of aggression: from individual behaviour to social interaction (pp.142-151). Berlin: SpringerVerlag. Slaby, R. G., & Guerra, N. (1988). Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: 1. Assessment. Developmental Psychology, 24, 580-588. Tapper, K., & Boulton, M. J. (2002). Social representation of physical, verbal and indirect aggression in children: Sex and age differences. Aggressive Behavior, 26, 442-454. Werner, N. E., & Nixon, C. L. (2005). Normative beliefs and relational aggression: An investigation of the cognitive bases of adolescent aggression. Journal of youth and adolescence, 34, 229-243. Zelli, A., Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., & Laird, J. (1999). The distinction between beliefs legitimising aggression and deviant processing of social cues: Testing measurement validity and the hypothesis that biased processing mediates the effects of beliefs on aggression. Journal of personality and social psychology, 77, 150-166 Zumkley, H. (1984). Individual differences and aggressive interactions. In A. Mummendey. (Ed.). Social Psychology of aggression: from individual behavior to social interaction (pp. 33-49). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Psychosocial Correlates of Excessive Computer Use among Pakistani Adolescents

Shazia Khalid* and Afsheen Masood Department of Applied Psychology University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan This study aimed to investigate the relationship between excessive computer use and its impact on psychosocial functioning of high school students. The participants included 300 school students of grades 6 9 and were taken from public and private schools of Lahore city. Their ages ranged from 11- to-14 years (M=12.5, SD=1.42). The data was collected using a self constructed Computer-Related Addictive Behaviors Questionnaire that probes issues about the computer use, computer-induced behavioral alterations and symptoms. CRAB (1990) contained two sections, i.e. first section aims at analyzing the extent of computer use while the second section assesses the symptoms that are produced due to the excessive use of computer. Based upon the cut off scores of section I of CRAB, the participants were divided into three groups of users: minimal users 2039 (65 students, 19.5 %), moderate users 4059 (130 students, 43.3%) and excessive users 60100 (105 students, 38.2 %). The findings indicated that computer-induced behavioral alterations occurred most frequently in excessive computer users and it was significantly correlated with total CRAB scores section II that measured subjective psychological complaints. Keywords: Computer Addiction, Psychosocial
functioning, alterations
computer-induced
behavioral
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Afsheen Masood, Lecturer, Department of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail: afshen1402@yahoo.com
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In todays world, technology has made peoples lives easier, but there are risks that the people should be aware of and that risk is from technology and its addictions. Among such technological advancements that breed the capacity of addiction, computer holds a significant place in the life of modern man. Computer use could be for various academic purposes as well as for various entertainment purposes. It has become increasingly common in Pakistan and its users have massively multiplied in number since its inception in 1980 (Khan, 1996). Our society is becoming more and more computer dependent not only for information but also for fun and amusement. Almost people from all ages are found preoccupied in computer dependency these days (Shearer, 2001). Together with a sudden increase in computer access in recent times, and with the increased use of computers for solving day to day problems, it has become more convenient option for almost everyone (Kuiper, 1992). Existing literature on over-zealous computer use behavior is mainly anecdotal and it has laid greater emphasis on the negative effects of such behavior. Weinberg (1971) discussed the computer users to be so much preoccupied with the computer related activities that they start drifting away from their daily routine activities and consequently impair their daily functioning. Similarly, Weizenbaum (1984) has contrasted 'compulsive users with routine users. The latter were said to perceive computer usage as just one stage in the problem-solving process, only interacting with the computer when the problem-solving process demanded it. They view the computer as a means towards the end of problem-solving.However, compulsive users were said to treat problems as a means towards interacting with the computer. Again, such interaction was said to take place at the expense of other important tasks such as their work related duties and their social lives. Such users are attributed as the computer dependent and computer addicts (Young, 1996b). Their compulsive behaviors come under the parasol of computer addiction (Weinberg, 1971).
77 PSYCHOSOCIAL CORRELATES OF COMPUTER USE
According to Ferris (2000) Computer addiction refers to the use of computer for a prolonged period of time that makes the person so much preoccupied in computer based activities that the ones involved in this can not resist from staying away from it. Ferris (2000) has used the term computer Addiction Disorder (CAD) which includes such factors like increasing tolerance of long computer spent hours, withdrawal, and unsuccessful efforts to control computer use etc. and has described it as a form of Cyber addiction. There are multiple potential negative outcomes of the excessive computer use in the existing literature that points out a lot of physical and psychological health hazards (Brenner, 1997; Griffiths, 1999) social segregation (Kraut, Patterson, Lundmark, Kiesler, Mukopadhyay,& Scherlis, 1998) lack of involvement in prosocial (Funk & Buchman, 1996) and poor school performance (Wiegman & van Schie, 1998). Whereas, some (e.g., Hall & Parsons, 2005) hold quite optimistic view about Computer-based addiction as they believe that this behavior is correctable, benign condition and it is possible that it compensates for a lack of satisfaction in other areas of life (Hall & Parsons, 2005 cited in Kershaw, 2005, p. 6). Some mental health professionals recognize computer addiction as a disorder, and are treating it as a dependency that can be as destructive as alcoholism and drug addiction (Roberts, 2001, p. 214). Computer addiction can have a devastating impact on peoples' lives, marring their lives from personal to social selves. Especially in early teens, this damages their academic performance (Kershaw, 2005). Anxiety levels become more pronounced in social situations in which the addicted user's peers are Internet illiterate (Suler, 2004). As far as the vulnerability of getting into the computer addiction is concerned, McLean (2000) has found out the reasons of why people become computer and Internet addicts. It was recognized that persons with computer addiction turn to the computer due to different reasons. This includes attempting to change moods, to overcome anxiety, to deal with depression, to reduce their loneliness,
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to distract themselves from the overwhelming problems and sometimes just to have fun. Elderly as well as children and adolescents become computer addict because they may not realize the extent of their dependency but this dependency is much greater among adolescents Computer addiction and Internet addiction has been identified more or less synonymously by many professionals and the media. Family therapists hear about those behaviors frequently in family therapy sessions. Clinical psychologists have reported increasing complains related to computer use. When the time spent on the computer, playing video games or cruising the Internet reaches a point that it harms a child's or adult's family and social relationships, or disrupts school or work life, that person may be caught in a cycle of addiction (Young, 1996a). A heated debate is rising among psychologists about the extent and intensity of the problem of excessive computer use. With the explosion of excitement about the computer, some people seem to be a bit too ambitious and spend too much time on computer based activities (Brenner, 1993). Like other addictions, the computer or internet has replaced friends and family as the source of a person's emotional life. Increasingly, to feel good, the addicted person spends more time playing video games or exploring the computer and the Internet. Time away from the computer or internet causes moodiness or withdrawal, and irritations in such compulsive users. Behavioral addictions such as computer addiction are an emerging phenomenon whose existence, except for pathological gambling, is questioned by the psychologists community. It has been categorized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR, 1994) as a condition affecting control of impulses and not as a problem of dependence. Regardless of how they are classified, the study of behavioral addictions is interesting and as a way of gaining an increased understanding of the psychological aspects of substance addiction. One behavioral addiction that has received considerable media attention is the pathological use of certain information and
PSYCHOSOCIAL CORRELATES OF COMPUTER USE
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communications technologies (ICT), such as the Internet, and video games. In the present study, there has been an attempt to investigate behavior addiction known as computer addiction among school students in the Lahore city, Pakistan. The predominant aim of the research study is to explore the excessive use of computers in daily life and its impact on daily life functioning of the school students. Hypotheses Following hypotheses were purposed. 1) Excessive Computer users are more likely to experience psychological problems. 2) Excessive Computer users are more likely to experience social problems. 3) Male students use more computer as compared to female students. Method Participants Participants included 300 school students equally divided across the educational levels and gender e.g. children from 5th, 6th and 7th grade including both girls and boys. These participants gave informed consent to participate in the study on volunteer basis. Researchers briefed the parents and school teachers about the objectives of the study and obtained their informed consent. Internet set ups are not available in all schools of the city Lahore but some schools have well-equipped labs and these schools are working under private and public sectors and have permission of internet facility. The males (n=50) students ranged in ages between 11to 14 years (M =12.8; SD 1.42 years) while the females (n=50) were also in the same age range, i.e. between 10 to 14 years (M = 12.5; SD 1.02 years). These students included those who had been using internet and were identified through initial screening of number of hours they spend on internet. Of
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375 students, 300 students met criterion of excessive internet use. Therefore, they were included in this study.
Table 1 Distribution of Grade, gender and age of sample
Grade 5th grade 6th grade 7th grade Total (age distribution) (11-12) (13-14) (14-15) Male Students Female Students
Total
n
30 50 70 150
%
9 15 26 50
n
30 50 70 150
%
9 15 26 50
n
60 100 140 300
%
18 30 52 100
Assessment Measures Computer Related Addicted behavior I was used in the current study. The Questionnaire comprises of five sections: a brief personal profile of the respondents, the Computer-Related Addictive Behavior Inventory, computer induced behavioral alterations in daily life; and the symptom Checklist about computer use and related problems. The questionnaires were designed by the researches and were based on the indicators drawn from the general survey of Internet habits (Griffith, 1949). Computer-related Addictive Behavior (CRAB) was used with the view that minor problems existed with changing the word internet with computer in the questions of the Internet. Consequently, the word internet in survey of study habits was simply changed to the word computer and the author referred to it as CRABI Section I. The internal consistency (Cronbach ) of CRABI was 0.92 and its testretest reliability, performed biweekly, was also satisfactory (c=0.85, p<0.001, n=60). CRABI consisted of 3 sections in total and a graded response was to be selected, describing 1=not at all to 5=always. Questionnaire for computer-induced behavioral alterations, comprised of CRAB II was used to get information about the extent of problems in five areas of daily life; poor academic performance, problems in family
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relationships including reduction in conversation time, reduction in time spent with friends; physical symptoms (headaches, shoulder ache, backaches, carpal tunnel syndrome and visual fatigue, etc.); sleep disturbance, such as daytime sleepiness because of sleep deprivation. The respondents gave their answers on a five point scale i.e. 1=no problem and 5=very serious problem. The internal consistency (Cronbach) of this questionnaire was 0.64 and its testretest reliability, administered after a gap of two weeks, was found to be satisfactory (c=0.76, p<0.001, n=60). Symptom Checklist CRAB Section II-B was used as a self-report measure of symptoms. The SCL consists of 30 questions, which are divided into nine symptom dimensions: Somatization, Obsessive compulsive, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic anxiety, Paranoid ideation and Psychoticism. Each symptom is rated on five point rating scale i.e. where 1=no problem and 5=very serious to describe the extent of the symptoms severity they had experienced during the last 7 days. The nine symptom dimensions were divided into three global indexes: global severity index representing the extent or depth of the present psychiatric disturbance; positive symptom total representing the number of questions rated above 1 point, and positive symptom distress index representing the intensity of the symptoms. Procedure Public and private sector schools that had the internet facility were approached. It was essential requirement that the facilities in the public vs. private schools were kept constant in terms of the facilities and conditions. The questionnaires were administered after seeking the formal informed consent from the respective heads of the schools and from the parents who were sent the forms for informed consent at home. Duly signed consent forms were received back attached on the diaries of the students. The Section I of CRAB was administered to differentiate the normal users from the excessive users.
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The ones who were classified as excessive users were given the Section II of the CRAB that tapped various psychosocial symptoms that excessive users possibly experienced. Results Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were used. Chi square analysis was performed to examine differences among the groups and socio demographic characteristics. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to discover whether or not differences existed among the groups in SCL. The post hoc test, using Tukeys HSD, was performed where there was a significant difference among the groups of computer users to trace out the cross-group differences. The percentage of students with a score above 70 was calculated in order to find the percentage of the participants that were under alarming state. Its significance among each group was compared using Fishers exact test. The Pearson correlation was used to examine relationships between computers induced behavioral alteration and total CRAB score, and between the SCL, CRAB Section II-B symptom dimensions score and the total CRAB score. In terms of gender distribution, more male students (94%) than female students (81.0%) used computers, showing a significantly higher use of computers by male students ( 2 =52.4, df =1, p<0.001). Computer-related addictive behavior The computer users were divided into three groups according to total CRAB section I score; 2039 for minimal users (65 students, 19.5 %), 4059 for moderate users (130 students, 43.3%) and 60 and above as excessive users (105 students, 38.2 %). About 83 % of the children reported regular computer use and who did not compulsorily used Internet during the past month. Distribution on gender base indicates ratio of male users is substantially higher than females being 94 % and 81 %, respectively.
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Length of computer use Average daily length of computer use during weekdays and weekends was t (298) =1.41 and 2.06 t (298) =1.7 hours, respectively. The post hoc tests revealed a significant difference among the three groups, showing a significantly longer use of computers by excessive users, followed by moderate and minimal users (p<0.001). Main computer activities Computers were used mainly for games (70.5%), followed by chatting (11.6%), school-related activities (8.1%), file downloads (6.8%), news (2.1%) and others (0.9%). Minimal users (10.9%) used computers for school-related activities significantly more than moderate (3.5%) and excessive users (1.4%) (2=21.7, df =2, p<0.001) however, there was no significant difference in computer use for other activities among three groups. Manifestations of computer-induced behavioral alterations Computer-induced behavioral alterationsmanifestations significantly correlated with the total CBABI score ( = 0.60, p<0.001). Comparison of average SCL scores by degree of preoccupation with computer The average scores for the nine SCL symptom dimensions and the three global indexes were significantly different among three groups; minimal, moderate and excessive users (F (2,4) =18.9, p<0.001). Post hoc tests of the nine symptom dimensions and the three global indexes among three groups showed significant differences. The nine SCL symptom dimensions and the three global indexes significantly correlated with the total CRABI score ( ranging from 0.25 to 0.34, p<0.001) in the computer users. The percentage and comparisons using Fishers exact test of, minimal, moderate and excessive users with scores above 70 for each SCL scale.
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Discussion Computer has already become a part of the Pakistani students everyday life. It has been observed that the excessive use on computers causes multifarious psychosocial problems. Gender differences with reference to this excessive use are prominent and highlights that male students tended to use computer more frequently than female students. It is suggested that the computer environment is orientated more towards male culture. Recently female users have shown a rise. The difference in the CRAB score distribution between males and females indicates that male students are much more preoccupied with the computer as entertainment. Of multiple purposes of computer use, only 8.5% of the population used them for educational purposes in schoolrelated activities. The remaining majority used computers for fun-seeking activities or recreational activities associated with computer game play. It was further found that game playing is subsequently coupled with chatting, and these double activities provide personal pleasure and pleasure in peer interactions. Why are adolescents attracted to games and chatting so much? Games and chatting provide instantaneous reward, so they can be viewed as a type of operant conditioning. The game setting is placed into cyberspace, where no ego threat exists and self can transform into a power identity from a helpless self situation. Also, since play involves the users manipulation, the game is obedient, pleasing, appeasing and even exciting. Computer games are widely considered a vehicle by which children are initiated and acclimated to the culture of computers. Games are designed mainly for boys, and most reflect male themes of action, adventure, violence, sports and competition. For this reason, males mainly between the ages of 10 and 20 play computer games more than females (Griffiths, 1993). After games, chatting was the most common activity on the computer. This finding, in which female students chatting more, is consistent with the results of previous studies (Weiser, 2000; Parker and Floyd, 1996). Chat rooms provide a
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potent mix of immediacy, anonymity and intimacy. Furthermore, chat rooms offer a sense of togetherness (Jantz and McMurray, 1998). These characteristics of chat rooms allow students to experience more unhindered friendships with friends met in the chat rooms than with real-life friends. The students who spend much time on playing games or in the chat room experience a deterioration of societal relationships, including isolation from friends (Griffiths, 2000), development of physical symptoms (Shotton, 1991) a drop in school performance (Wallace, 1999) conflicts with family members (Kraut & Patterson, 1998) and decrease in total sleep time (Young, 1998). This study also supports the fact that computer use induces various detrimental effects in their daily life. Although computer addiction has not been recognized as an official diagnosis, it can be viewed as a problematic behavior requiring more attention, if it causes problems in daily life and interferes with healthy development during his/her adolescence years. Many studies seem to suggest that preoccupation with computer use might cause psychiatric problems: internet addicts had psychological and psychiatric problems, such as depression, anxiety and low self-esteem, long before they became addicted to the internet (Young, 1998) he/she becomes more isolated from internet use (Kraut & Patterson, 1998) and the internet is used to counteract other deficiencies in the persons life (Epright, Allwood & Stern, 1999). All these suggestions indicate a possible underlying psychopathology in people who are preoccupied with the computer or the internet. However, clarification based on clear epidemiological studies is needed. The present results from the SCL CRAB- Section II were able to discriminate four decreasing orders of subjective psychiatric complaints: most frequent in excessive users and then moderate, non-, and mild users, in order. The significant difference in the percentage of students with scores above 70 among four groups supports the fact that the greater the preoccupation with computers, the more complaints there are of clinically
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significant psychiatric symptoms. Score 70 is two standard deviation from the mean of each SCL and scores above 70 are considered clinically significant. Among excessive users, the percentage of students who score above 70 was shown to be highest for symptoms of Obsessive compulsive (13.0%) followed by Interpersonal sensitivity (11.6%) Somatization (9.4%) Anxiety (8.7%) and Hostility (8.7%). This result indicates that teenagers with excessive computer use complained mainly of the above symptoms. Although this study has some limitations because of its self- constructed questionnaire method and due to limited sample size. Still, this study proposes the points that it is necessary to educate adolescents for healthy computer use and to pay attention to prevent related psychosocial outcomes from excessive use. Also, it is necessary to establish a screening tool for the excessive computer user. The intake of nation wide sample with greater sample size is suggested. Lastly, further in-depth studies will be necessary to clarify whether or not this new trend is a new clinical diagnostic entity. References American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed. revised). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. revised). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Brenner, W. (1993). Psychology of Computer Use. Internet: Use and Abuse. Psychological Reports. 80: 879-882. Brown, I. (1997). A theoretical model of the behavioural addictions--applied to offending. In J. E. Hodge, M. McMurran, & C. R. Hollin (Eds.), Addicted to crime? (pp. 13-65). Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
Brown, R. I. F. (1991). Gaming, gambling and other addictive play. In J. H. Kerr & M. J. Apter (Eds.), Adult play: A reversal theory approach (pp. 101118). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Brown, R. I. F. (1993). Some contributions of the study of gambling to the study of other addictions. In W. R. Eadington & J. A. Cornelius (Eds.), Gambling behavior and problem gambling (pp. 241-272). Reno NV: University of Nevada. Charlton, J. P. (1999). Biological sex, sex-role identity and the spectrum of computing orientations: a reappraisal at the end of the 90s. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 21, 393-412. Charlton, J. P., & Birkett, P. E. (1995). The development and validation of the Computer Apathy and Anxiety Scale. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13, 41-59. Charlton, J. P., & Birkett, P. E. (1998). Psychological characteristics of students on programmingoriented and applications-oriented computing courses. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18, 163-182. Charlton, J. P., & Birkett, P. E. (1999). An integrative model of factors related to computing course performance. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 20, 237-257. Eppright, T., Allwood, M., Stern, B., & Theiss, T. (1999). Internet Addiction: a new type evidence. Cyberpsychology Behavior, 3, 211218. Retrieved
from July23, 2007 http://www.health.am/psy/more/computer-addictionwhat-is-it/
Funk, A., & Buchman, L. (1996). Computer deflects women and minorities. Science, 171. Ferris, J. R. (2000). Internet addiction disorders: Causes, symptoms, and psychological Wellbeing?American Psychology 53, 10171031. Griffths, M. (1993). Does internet and computer addiction exist? Some case study of addiction? , 96, 133136. Retrieved July 23, 2007, from
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http://www.health.am/psy/more/computeraddiction-what-is-it/ Griffiths, M. (1995). Technological addictions. Clinical Psychology Forum, 76, 14-19. Griffiths, M. (1996). Behavioural addiction: an issue for everybody? Pre-publication copy of an article published in Employee Counseling Today. Journal of the Workplace. Griffiths, M. (1997). Psychology of computer use: XLIII. Some comments on 'addictive use of the Internet by Young. Psychological Reports, 80, 81-82. Griffiths, M. (1998). Internet addiction: does it really exist? In J. Gackenbach (Ed.), Psychology and the Internet (pp. 61-75). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Griffiths, M. D., & Hunt, N. (1998). Dependence on computer games by adolescents. Psychological Reports, 82, 475-480. Grohol, J. M. (1998). Future clinical directions: professional development, pathology and psychotherapy on-line. In J. Gackenbach (Ed.), Psychology and the Internet (pp. 111-140). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Hall, J., & Parsons, S. (2005). Adolescence: development and syndromes. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Jantz, G. L., & Mcmurra, Y. A. (1998). Hidden dangers of the internet: Using it without Abusing. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Kershaw, S. (2005). Hooked on the Web: Help Is on the Way. Social Ramifications of Excessive Internet Use among College-Age Males. Journal of Technology and Culture, 20 (1), pp. 44-53. Kuiper, D. (1992). Those idiots in the computer room. Portland, OR: Macadam House. Addiction Psychologies, 3, 401407 Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53, 1017-1031.
Martin, C. D. (1992). Report on the workshop. In C. D. Martin & E. Murchie-Beyma (Eds.), In Search of Gender Free Paradigms for Computer Science Education (pp. 1-8). Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education. Noshpitz, J. D. (Ed). Handbook of child and adolescent psychiatry, 3, 177-179. Orford, J. (1985). Excessive appetites: A psychological view of addictions. New York: John Wiley. Parks, M. R., & Floyd, K. (1996). Making friends in cyberspace. Journal of Behavior, 46, 8097. Pelle, S. (1985). The meaning of addiction. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Roberts, L. (2001). On a listserv devoted to the cyber psychology. San Diego: Academic Press. Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. London: Taylor & Francis. Shotton, M. A. (1991). The costs and benefits of computer Addiction. Behavior Inform: pp 56-68 Shotton, M. A. (1991). The costs and benefits of 'computer addiction . Behaviour & Information Technology, 10, 219-230. Suler, J. (2004). Computer and cyberspace addiction. International Journal of Applied Psychology. 12 Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed). New York: Harper & Row. Wallace, P. (1999). The psychology of the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wiegman, J. A., & Schie, V. (1998). Overview of normal adolescent development. Psychoanalytic Studies, 1, 359-362. Weinberg, G. M. (1971). The psychology of computer programming. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Weiser, E. B. (2000). Gender differences in internet use patterns and Internet application preferences: a two-sample comparison. Cyberpsychology, 3, 167 177. Weizenbaum, J. (1984). Computer power and human reason. London: Penguin
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Young,
K. (1999). Internet addiction: symptoms, evaluation, and treatment. In VandeCreek, L., & Jackson, T. L. (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (vol. 17, pp. 19-31). Sarasota, FL: Professional Research Press. Young, K. S. (1996a). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Paper presented at the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto. Young, K. S. (1996b). Psychology of computer use: XL. Addictive use of the Internet: a case that breaks the stereotype. Psychological Reports, 79, 899-902. Young, K. S. (1998). Caught in the net. New York: John Wiley & Sons
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JOURNAL OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES

Journal of Behavioural Sciences (JBS)

Journal of Behavioural Sciences Vol. 18 Number 1-2 2008

Shirbagi and Kord

FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Shirbagi and Kord

FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Group 2 Group 3 Control Group

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FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

M 8.97 8.77 8.94 8.91

M 13.45 15.65 16.49 12.94

Results obtained from ANOVA regarding posttest based

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on various methods of formative feedback are reported on Table III.

FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Shirbagi and Kord

FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Shirbagi and Kord

FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Shirbagi and Kord

FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Shirbagi and Kord

Journal of Behavioural Sciences Vol. 18 Number 1-2 2008

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah 22

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

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6.63* 6.10* 6.19*

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

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13.85** 6.91* 6.25*

< 3 Years > 3 Years df = 23, *p<0.01,**p<0.001

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

EXECUTIVE CONGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Najam and Abdullah

Journal of Behavioural Sciences Vol. 18

Number 1-2 2008

Factors Influencing Customers Willingness to Buy in the Context of PC peripherals

Jahangir, Shil and Pervez

FACTORS INFLUENCING CUSTOMERS WILLINGNESS TO BUY

Jahangir, Shil and Pervez

FACTORS INFLUENCING CUSTOMERS WILLINGNESS TO BUY 45

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Research Variables and their Relationships

Jahangir, Shil and Pervez

FACTORS INFLUENCING CUSTOMERS WILLINGNESS TO BUY 47

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Price Sensitivity .56** -

Product Quality .32** .49** -

Product Quality .32 .49 -

Promotion .57 .48 .43** -

Willingness to Buy .54 .63 .51 .57 -