Steel and Synthetic Fibers in Tunnels and Mines

Presented by Jeannine Jones, BASF November 5, 2009 Steel Fibers by

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Purpose of todays meeting

To help engineers and designers design with fibers for shotcreting and final linings To help you quantify the value, from an owners point of view, of using fibers instead of traditional reinforcement

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Agenda

Identification of the correct fiber for various applications How to quantify material and labor savings of fibers vs. traditional reinforcement Designing with fibers Fibers in precast, final linings and cast-in-place liners Fibers in conjunction with admixtures Fibers which can reduce spalling in fires Waterproofing membranes combined with fibers vs. waterproofing PVC and rebar

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Why Use Fibers? Generally

Fibers Reduce Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Fibers Reduce Plastic Settlement Cracking Fibers Add Impact and Abrasion Resistance Fibers Reduce Permeability Fibers Provide Shatter Resistance Fibers Impart Toughness & Residual Strength Fibers are Built in Reinforcement! In Short, Fibers Work!
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Which Fiber to Use?

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Identification of the correct fiber for various applications

Explosive spalling
Micro Fibers these fibers provide voids for steam to move into after they melt @ 320F (160C)

Spillways, temporary tunnel linings, anything non-structural

Macro fibers macros can replace WWF and light gauge rebar, provide durability, are pumpable and perform post first crack reinforcement Economical way of providing some reinforcement for the temporary tunnel linings where tunnels are designed as only temporary structures

Shotcrete, final tunnel linings

Steel fibers provide primary, structural reinforcement, and some flexural, shear and tensile stress reinforcement, improve durability, toughness, ductility & are pumpable

Where not to use

Tunnel Linings Macro fibers may have creep issues Steel Fibers puncture membrane PVC Sheet Membranes

Steel Fibers by

Not Every Fiber is the Same

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Identification of the correct polymeric fiber for various applications

Micro Fiber for explosive spalling Monofilament micro fiber typical features: High fiber count/yd/m - at least 60MM/lb Length between 6 13mm Diameter < 32

Macro Fiber for secondary, post first crack reinforcement Macro fiber typical features Length 1.5 to 2 typically Tensile Strength min of 40ksi (275MPa) Modulus of Elasticity min of 4,000ksi (2,750MPa) Average Residual Strength 150psi @ 3 lb/yd (1.8kg/m)

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Identification of the correct steel fiber for various applications

Aspect ratio Aspect Ratio is the length over the diameter of the fiber Aspect Ratio gives you an indication of the performance of the fiber. The higher the aspect ratio, the higher the performance with respect to impact resistance, abrasion resistance, toughness, ductility, crack resistance. Typically between 40 60 Volume concentration The higher the volume, the better the performance, although the shotcrete will become more difficult to mix, convey and shoot at these higher dosages. Steel fiber typical features: Length 1.25 in. (30mm) to 2 in. (50mm) Deformed ends Type I meeting ASTM A820 (NB Type II fibers do not have the same performance qualities as type I Dosages between 50 lb/y (30 kg/m) and 135 lb/yd (80kg/m) with most common dosage at 100dlb/ yd (60kg/m)

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How Much Can Be Saved Using Fibers?

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Quantifying material and labor savings of fibers vs. traditional reinforcement

The steel typically pulled out of the tunnels and mines is #5 & #6 rebar, double layered Hard and Soft Dollar Savings 50% of a shift can be spent hanging mesh this is time lost on excavation Final Lining Savings Can save 20-25% of steel cost Can increase productivity by 30-50% Can increase productivity by 50% if you pull out all of the rebar. If you leave some, then its ~ 30% Can increase productivity by 50%
#5 Rebar

Cast in Place Savings

#6 Rebar

Shotcrete Savings Safety issues reduce tripping, material handling & falls

The faster you can excavate, faster contractor gets paid and can move on to next job
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Designing with Fibers

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Some background on steel fibers

Why use Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC)?

Steel fibers will add crack resistance, ductility, energy absorption and impact resistance

Why are steel fibers a better choice than wire mesh or rebar?
They can provide superior residual load carrying capacity at small deformations and equivalent performance at large deformations You can do away with installation costs of WWR and rebar Reduce hazards for employees It can follow the exact contours of the rock face whereas WWR often requires 2 in. (50mm) of cover as well as filling of voids behind the mesh w/ shotcrete You may see a drastic reduction (up to 40%) in shotcrete material with SFRC in blocky or fractured rock surfaces If there are voids behind the WWF, then phenomenon like ice-jacking can occur more easily Production rates/advance rates should be faster with SFRC up to 50% of labor time can be reduced

What may be the negatives to using SFRC?

Slightly higher wear on concrete pumping equipment More wear on equipment with rubber wearing pads use tougher wearing pads and carefully control tolerance of setting of wearing pads May be greater rate of wear in hoses and nozzles Avoid sharp bends in hoses

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Beginning the process

When specs are being created, you use the manufacturers information to determine which material to use For example, if a segment needs to achieve 400 psi at 3mm deflection according to ASTM C1609, a fiber is selected which has the necessary properties and dosage rate. There is a mandatory procedure in any precast job that you do a test using the mix design, aggregate and fibers which will be used to make sure that performance requirements are met. A QC person will then perform testing for a pre-determined number of segments or distance to make sure everything is still in spec.

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Mechanical properties and test methods

Select the appropriate test below to help you decide which design code to use
American Codes: ASTM C1609-07 Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness and FirstCrack Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam With ThirdPoint Loading) ASTM C1399-07 Test Method for Obtaining Average Residual-Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete European Codes: UNI 11039 Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete EFNARC EN-14488 Testing Sprayed Concrete: Flexural Strengths RILEM Japanese Code: JCI-SF-4 Method of Test for Flexural Strength and Flexural Toughness of fiber reinforced concrete
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FRC design guidelines worldwide

Which design code should be used?

Relevant design codes, guidelines and reports in FRC worldwide:

Rilem TC162 Test and design methods for steel fiber reinforced concrete (England) TR 63 Steel fiber reinforced concrete (England) DESIGN , PRODUCTION AND CONTROL OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Standard UNI U73041440 (Italy) CNR_DT204_2006 Guidelines for design and construction of Fiber reinforced concrete structures (Italy) ACI 318-08, Chapter 11. Shear Reinforcement (USA) ACI 544-3R-08 Guide for Specifying, Proportioning and Production of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
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Basic guidelines to develop a design with 100% SFRC or a hybrid solution

(SFRC + rebar reinforcement)
Material testing definition for FRC (compression stress, first crack moment, tensile strength, toughness index , residual strength) Constitutive bilinear law definition through flexural residual strength testing. NLFM (non linear fracture mechanics)

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SFRC Material Constitutive Laws -w

From the experimental flexural test ASTM C1609/UNI 11039 fct

fct

+
Ec CTODm Pre-peak, -
s1 w1

w
wc

Post-peak, -w

From experimental tests Inverse analyses The numerical inverse analyses were provided by using NLFE software

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Numerical and experimental

R60 - FF1 - 35 kg/m - Vf=0,45%
6
3

9 8

R60 - FF1 - 45 kg/m - Vf=0,57%

Nominal Stress s N [MPa]

Nominal Stress s N [MPa]

5 4 3 2 1 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Experimental Numerical

Experimental Numerical

CTODm [mm]
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

CTODm [mm]
6

R60 - FF3 - 25 kg/m - Vf=0,32%

Nominal Stress s N [MPa]

R60 - FF3 - 35 kg/m - Vf=0,45%

Nominal Stress s N [MPa]

Experimental Numerical

Experimental Numerical

0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

CTODm [mm]

CTODm [mm]

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Constitutive Laws -w

MasterFiber FF1

MasterFiber FF3

5 Nominal stress [MPa]

5 Nominal stress [MPa] 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 Crack opening [mm] 4 5 6 Vf = 0,00% Vf = 0,45% Vf = 0,57%

4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2

Vf = 0,00% Vf = 0,32% Vf = 0,45%

Crack opening [mm]

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Flexural test performace

FF1 FF3 FS1 FS3N FS4N FS7

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Precast Segment Lining Design Examples

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Precast Tunnel
Tunnel Lining Cross-Section

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Tunnel ground condition evaluation of bending moment and axial force diagram

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Precast tunnel segment geometries

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Storage load condition

One Ring: 7 + 1 segments

Wood Blocks

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Load condition TBM load action

Segments ring Shield

Escavation direction Hydraulic jacks Boring head

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Reinforcement comparison

Rebar only

SFRC + Rebar

350

350 350

We suggest a combined reinforcement made of 35 kg/m3 of MasterFiber FF3 and steel rebar as shown in the following picture
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Tunnel segments
Displacement under service load

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Tunnel segments
Longitudinal stress under service load

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Optimized reinforcement

Tunnel Segments: Non Linear Analyses, Comparison

30000 25000

Load [kN]

20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Quite the same load capacity

45FF1 RC RCO35FF1

Plain RC35FF1

Displacement [mm]
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Segment coming out of mold with suction process

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Segment being placed on a carousel system

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Crane picking up three segments

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Segments in storage

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Case history- precast segments

Steel Fibers by

Line 9 Subway Barcelona, Spain

Tunnel diameter: 12 m 6 segments + 1 key Concrete 50 MPa Hybrid design : Rebar 30 kg/m3 + SFRC 30 kg/m3 MasterFiber FF3 Steel Fiber

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Case history- precast segments

Steel Fibers by

Madrid Subway, Spain

Tunnel diameter: 10 m 6 segments + 1 key Concrete 50 MPa Hybrid design : Rebar 60 kg/m3 + SFRC 25 kg/m3 MasterFiber FF3 Steel Fiber

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Case history- precast segments

Steel Fibers by

Genoa Subway, Italy

Tunnel diameter: 6.2 m 6 segments + 1 key Concrete 40 MPa Hybrid design : Rebar 60 kg/m3 + SFRC 25 kg/m3 MasterFiber FF3 Steel Fiber

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Case history- precast segments

Steel Fibers by

Orakei Main Sewer Hobson Division in New Zealand

Tunnel diameter: 3.7 m 6 segments + 1 key Concrete 50 MPa 100% SFRC Design : 40 kg/m3 MasterFiber FF3 Steel Fiber

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Case history- precast segments

Steel Fibers by

Bright Water Sewer System Seattle Tacoma, WA USA

Tunnel diameter: 3.7 m to 5 m 5 segments + 1 key Concrete 50 MPa 100% SFRC Design : 40 kg/m3 MasterFiber FF3 Steel Fiber

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SFRC precast segment lining

Design Guideline

Tunnel Final Lining Usual dosage and thickness by application

Mix RR + SFRC Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 25-35 (44-60) Thickness mm (in.) 250-400 (10-16) SFRC Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 40-60 (67-100) Thickness mm (in.) 250-400 (10-16)

Fiber Type MasterFiber FF1 MasterFiber FF3

20-30 (34-50)

250-400 (10-16)

35-50 (60-85)

250-400 (10-16)

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Shotcrete Lining Design Examples

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Shotcrete lining tunnel example

Materials: Fiber reinforced concrete: Compression: 35 MPa Tension resistance at peak load= 4 MPa Tension in 0.6 mm of crack opening =3.5 MPa Tension in 1.5 mm of crack opening= 2 MPa Rock around the tunnel: Elastic Modulus: 2000 MPa Unit Weight= 2.2 Ton/m3 Load Case: Internal radial pressure from inside to the rock: 200 kPa 300 kPa 500 kPa The drawing units are in meters.
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Cracking shotcrete tunnel lining

The load is increased from 100 500 kPa

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Cracking shotcrete tunnel lining

The load is increased from 100 500 kPa

Cracking process in detail

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Shotcrete Round Panel test ASTM C1550

ASTM C 1550-02: Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness of FRC and Shotcrete (Using Centrally Loaded Round Determinate Panel)
40

The required dimensions of the panel are 75 mm (3 in.) in thickness and 800 mm (31.5 in.) in diameter

Loading piston

Specimen

30

Load (kN)

LVDT
20 Integrate the area under the curve between the (corrected) origin and the specified total deflection 10
LVDT yoke anchored at transfer plates

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

Displacement (mm)
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Shotcrete Guideline - based on energy absorption test for excavation rock stability
Reference TR-63

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Case history- shotcrete final lining

Steel Fibers by
Shotcrete Final Lining PINALITO (Dominican Republic) Hydroelectric System Dosage rate: 40 kg/m3 (67 lb/yd3) MasterFiber FS3N

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SFRC shotcrete lining

Energy absorption guideline

Tunneling Shotcrete Usual dosage and typical lining thickness by Energy Absorption Test
Fiber Type ASTM C1550 = 225 J Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) MasterFiber FS3N MasterFiber FS7 35 (60) 25 (44) ASTM C1550 = 350 J Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 40 (67) 30 (50) ASTM C1550 = 450 J Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 35 (75) 35 (60)

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Final Lining Designs Examples

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SFRC cast in place final lining

Design guideline

Replacing double layer rebar #5

ARC 100% SFRC 67 lb/yd3 SFRC

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SFRC cast in place final lining

Design guideline

Reducing rebar size from #8 to #7

ARC 100% SFRC 50 lb/yd3 SFRC

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SFRC cast in place final lining

Design guideline

Tunnel Final Lining Usual dosage and thickness by application

Fiber Type Mix RR + SFRC Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) Thickness mm (in.) SFRC Dosage kg/m3 (lb/yd3) Thickness mm (in.)

MasterFiber FF1 MasterFiber FF3

25-35 (44-60) 20-30 (34-50)

250-400 (10-16) 250-400 (10-16)

40-60 (67-100) 35-50 (60-85)

250-400 (10-16) 250-400 (10-16)

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Case history- final lining

Steel Fibers by
SFRC Final Lining. Highway A3 Salerno Regio Calabria Italy Dosage rate:35 kg/m3 (60 lb/yd3) MasterFiber FF1

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Case history- final lining

Steel Fibers by

SFRC Final Lining Highway SS203 Agordina Cencenighe BL Italy Dosage rate: 35 kg/m3 (60 lb/yd3) MasterFiber FF1

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Case history- final lining

Steel Fibers by
SFRC Final Lining Highway SS203 Agordina Cencenighe BL Italy Dosage rate:30 kg/m3 (50 lb/yd3) MasterFiber FF1

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Using Macro Polymeric Fibers

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Macro polymeric fibers

Uses and Applications: Synthetic fibers used more in mines than in tunnels Predominately wet shotcrete, very rarely in dry shotcrete Used more in initial support shotcrete Typical Dosages: Mining 8-12 lb/yd3, some as much as 14 lb/yd3 Shotcrete initial support 8-12 lb/yd3 Limits 18 lb/yd3 difficult for matrix to support anymore due to high volume Approximate equivalents 12 lb/yd3 can perform similar to 60 lb/yd3 of steel Tests: 1550 panel test synthetics will typically outperform steel 1609 beam test steel typically outperforms synthetics
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Examples of polymeric fibers in temporary tunnels

Devils Slide - Highway Tunnel

Engineers Est.: $240,000,000

Shotcrete for Initial Support

48mm Macro Polymeric Fiber

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Fibers and Admixtures

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Fibers in conjunction with admixtures

Shotcrete Dry-Mix No changes to mix design, but be aware that if you cut back too much on cementitious content, there may be more total rebound and specifically, fiber rebound. Synthetic fibers in a dry mix are more difficult to deal with due to high level of rebound. It is not recommended to use micro fibers as they can very easily get blown out of the mix Steel fibers provide the most consistent quality in a dry mix Shotcrete Wet-Mix Use water reducers @ ~8oz/cwt (.5l/100kg) and superplasticizers for silica fume concrete @ ~16-24oz/cwt (1-1.5l/100kg) Wet mixes are more conducive to any fibers use Notes Dosages of high/mid range will increase with higher fiber dosages Slump may decrease at higher fiber dosages by 1-2 in. Although slump may decrease workability will not avoid temptation to re-temper mix which can result in segregation and balling of the fibers and a final product which has lost hardness quality. Just put some energy on the mix and it will move.

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Concrete Fire Spalling

Source: Applications of Micro-Synthetic Fibers for Resistance to Explosive Spalling in Fires. Trevor Atkinson & Peter C. Tatnall
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Types of concrete fire spalling

Surface spalling If temperature rise is relatively slow, concrete moisture migrates from the heat exposed side and thus pressure build up is minimal, resulting in less spalling Corner break-off spalling Also called sloughing off Occurs at corners and edges during later stages in the fire when concrete has cracked and weakened Explosive spalling Occurs with rapid heat rise within the first 10-20 minutes (usually hydrocarbon based) and is by far the most dangerous and damaging form of spalling. Moisture in the concrete is heated faster than it can move away from the heat, moisture changes to vapor and the vapor increases pore pressure. Once the pressure exceeds the tensile capacity of the concrete, concrete is violently and explosively dislodged from the concrete exposing more concrete to the fire

Explosive Spalling is our Focus for Todays Presentation

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How do polypropylene fibers help reduce spalling?

The most common theory is that because the high fiber count fibers melt at 320 F (160 C) this allows the steam from the moisture in the concrete an escape void rather than allowing pressure to build causing explosions. In addition to this, another more comprehensive theory is that because the polypropylene, when heated, expands 8.5x more than the concrete, they turn crystalline and cause micro cracking in the matrix. The micro cracks join and provide channels for the release of steam. Typical specs Fibers with diameters less than 32 Lengths between 6mm 13mm
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Selecting the right polypropylene fiber

Typical specs Fibers with diameters less than 32 Lengths between 6mm 13mm At least 60MM fibers/lb Recommended dosages 1.7 lb/yd (1 kg/m) 3.4 lb/yd (2 kg/m) Some Things To Avoid Shorter (6mm), smaller diameter (18) fibers may tend to ball and may greatly increase air content (6-8%) Macro polypropylene and steel fibers have shown no resistance to spalling (due mostly to their lower fiber count/yd/m vs. the PP fibers)
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Time-temperature curve test methods

Most Severe Hydrocarbon Fuelled Fire RWS (Rijkswaterstaat) Curve furnace temperatures rise rates increase at a rate of 400 F (200 C) per minute to 2000 F (1100 C) in 5 minutes, with final temperature reaching 2460 F (1350 C) and then held there for 2 hours Another Hydrocarbon Fuelled Fire Method Eurocode I Hydrocarbon final temperature ~1100 C and held for 160 minutes Test for Slower Temperature Rise Fires ISO 834 Cellulose final temperature ~1100 C and held for 160 minutes but slope of rise more gradual

BASF Will Design Its M100 UL Test After the RWS Method
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Tunnels using polypropylene fibers to mitigate explosive spalling

Channel Tunnel Rail Link UK Dublin Port Tunnel Ireland Gotthard Base Tunnel Switzerland T5 Heathrow Express Tunnel UK Weehawken Tunnel USA Paramatta/Chatswood Tunnel Australia Vomp-Terfens Tunnel - Austria

Polypropylene Fibers Cost ~1% of Constructed Concrete Lining

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An example of cost from tunnel fire

Mont Blanc Tunnel Fire in 1999

39 people died 7.4 miles of tunnel between France and Italy were closed for 3 years Repair costs totaled $273MM (USD) Italian government lost >$2B in trade

Addition of correct PP fiber is an inexpensive means of protecting lives, reducing catastrophic collapse, repair costs and commercial disruption
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Waterproofing

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Waterproofing membranes combined with fibers vs. waterproofing PVC and rebar
The most common types of membranes are PVC membrane with heat welded seams The most common problems with them are that they are: Difficult to shotcrete unless theres strong reinforcement against the PVC Prone to leaks behind the PVC Vulnerable to chasing leaks It is often not recommended to shotcrete steel fibers onto them because of risk of punctures Solution Masterseal 345 Its a fully bonded system if theres a leak visible, thats where the leak is The main property of the membrane is that it bonds to both the substrate and the concrete which is applied to it creating an impermeable interface this is what keeps the leak from migrating. No special equipment is needed to apply Masterseal 345 just use a standard dry gunnite machine Thickness of membrane should be a minimum of 2mm and optimum of 3mm. Do not exceed 5mm in thickness since this can cause slow curing. Substrate preparation Its essential to have a smooth substrate with limited roughness in order to achieve a continuous membrane. Use a sprayed concrete w/ maximum grain size of 4mm Curing starts immediately after application and once started, its irreversible. Possible Difficulties Seepages penetrating through membrane in areas where continuous membrane was not achieved. If these occur, theyll happen within the first day after application. To remediate, inject locally where water seepage is visible.

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MASTERSEAL 345

Features
Dry-process material, ready-for-use Elasticity 80-140% b/w -4 & 68 F (-20 & 20 C) Fast curing No toxic components Environmentally friendly

Benefits
Easily applied by spraying with uncomplicated equipment Two-sided bond with sprayed-concrete allows for monolithic behavior

Chemistry - Vinylacetate-ethylene copolymer and Cement FAQs

What thickness is required for the overspraying of concrete? Minimum 50 mm concrete thickness with fibers. Smaller thicknesses require special efforts to avoid shrinkage cracks. Puncture repair injection (acrylic) and application with trowel Too much water (>50 % water): sagging of the freshly sprayed membrane on the wall, longer curing time, risk of cracking of membrane by very high ventilation with dry air. Too little water (<25 %): brittle and discontinous (no membrane!). Excessive dust during application. 70 120 m m2/ hour, depending on experience of crew and layout of working sequence.

How are leaking spots repaired? What can happen if you spray with too much / too little water?

What capacity during application is realistic to calculate?

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MASTERSEAL 345 BMI test results

PRACTICAL EFFECTIVENESS OF CEMENT-BONDED SEALING LAYERS FOR SINGLE-SHELL TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

External tests results and certifications EMPA Switzerland: long term pressure test Mott Mc Donald: Technical report with summary of actual test results BMI (Innsbruck): Practical feasibility test

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Example of Masterseal 345 with fibers

WATERPROOFING OF A SUBSEA TUNNEL WITH A UNIQUE SPRAYABLE MEMBRANE - THE NORDY ROAD TUNNEL, FAROE ISLANDS

About the tunnel - The Nordy road tunnel passes below the fiord between the two islands of Eystury and Bordy in the Faroe Islands. The total length of the tunnel is 6,155 m with a cross section of 64 m(two lanes). The maximum depth under the sea is 150 m with a minimum rock cover of approximately 40 m. The rock types in the area are extrusive basalts. Goal - Waterproofing of the tunnel contour to avoid the dripping of water onto the actual road surface. Cost - The total cost of the waterproofing of the tunnel made up approximately 10% of the total project cost. Trend - In the last few years there has been a trend to avoid flammable materials in underground construction. The flammable PE foam sheets were therefore not in accordance with a modern design philosophy with non-flammable materials. The goal was to reduce the amount of the PE foam waterproofing by more than 50%. Solution - A sprayable waterproofing membrane in a composite liner based on sprayed concrete. Steel fiber reinforced concrete applied after membrane had achieved sufficient curing (10-14 days) Advantages - possibility to locally waterproof smaller areas without the need to bring the waterproofing all the way down to the invert, no inflammable materials, reduced total lining thickness and significant financial benefits to owner and contractor over a technical solution with PVC sheet membrane and cast-in-place concrete lining.

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Thank you for your time!

For follow up questions, please call Jeannine Jones at 216-839-7227 or Ashish Goel at 216-839-7055 or find your BASF Sales Representative by Area below: Haydn Whittam - coal mining only (US and Canada), 606-331-1212 Wes Morrison - Eastern/Central Division, 571-344-3286 Lauro Lacerda - Western Division, 801-726-6488 Mark Mudlin - Mountain Area (primarily Nevada), 775-397-0188 Keith McDonald - Western Canada, 306-222-2270 Floyd Wudrick - Western Canada, 306-221-7919 Brad Knight - Eastern Canada, 705-499-8448 Bill Brosko - Eastern Canada, 705-507-1130 Visit us on the web at www.masterbuilders.com
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