Chapter1

CHAPTER I Discontinuities & Defects

Definitions Inherent Defects (Raw Material) Fabrication Defects: design, material selection, machining faults In-service defects: corrosion, erosion, wear, wrong loading, fatigue, creep Assembly Defects: unbalance , misalignment , looseness , etc.

Chapter1

Definitions
Discontinuity: interruption in the properties of
the material under investigation.

Defect: is a discontinuity that affects the end use

of the part to be investigated. Thus all defects are discontinuities, but not all discontinuities are considered defects.

Chapter1

Inherent Defects
Defects that appear in the ingot or in the billet before fabrication: Cracks Porosity Non-metallic inclusions Pipes

Chapter1

Inherent Defects

Chapter1

Fabrication Defects

Primary Fabrication Defects

Rolling

Casting

Forging

Welding

Chapter1

Secondary Fabrication Defects

Secondary Fabrication Defects Seamless Tubes Grinding Fatigue Cracks

Welded pipes

Extrusion

Heat Treatment

Chapter1

Rolling Defects:

LAMINATION STRINGERS SEAMS

Chapter1

Rolling Defects

Chapter1

Rolling Defects

Chapter1

10

Rolling Defects

Chapter1

11

Forging Discontinuities

Forging Labs Forging Bursts Cracks

Chapter1

12

Forging Defects

Chapter1

13

Forging Laps

Chapter1

14

Forging Laps

Chapter1

15

Internal & External Bursts

Chapter1

16

Internal Bursts

Chapter1

17

Internal Bursts

Chapter1

18

Casting Defects
Cracks Porosity Cold Shut Hot tears Shrinkage Cavity Micro shrinkage Blow Holes

Chapter1

19

Casting Defects

Chapter1

20

Casting Defects

Chapter1

21

Casting Defects

Chapter1

22

Hot Tears

Hot Tears

Chapter1

23

Casting Defects

Cold Shuts

Chapter1

24

Casting Porosity

Chapter1

25

Welding Defects:

Introduction to welding terms. Cracks: Crater Cracks Stress Cracks Porosity Lack of penetration Lack of Fusion Slag inclusion Undercut
Chapter1

26

Definition of Welding Terms

Chapter1

27

Welding Cracks

Chapter1

28

Stress Cracks

Chapter1

29

Porosity

Chapter1

30

Slag Inclusions

Chapter1

31

Lack of Penetration

Chapter1

32

Lack (Incomplete) of Fusion

Lack of Fusion

Chapter1

33

Undercut

Chapter1

34

Collective Welding Defects

Chapter1

35

Collective Welding Defects

Chapter1

36

Seams in Welded Pipes

Chapter1

37

Sluge in Extruded Pipes

Chapter1

38

Gouging in Extruded Pipes

Chapter1

39

Grinding Cracks

Chapter1

40

Heat Treatment Cracks

Heat Treatment Cracks

Chapter1

41

Chapter 2

CHAPTER I

Inspection and Quality

Inspection of Engineering Products:
Is defined as Separation of the accepted products from the rejected ones. Thus we need to have acceptance/ rejection criteria. Acceptance/rejection criteria are set up according to the end use of the product.
Chapter 2

Definition of Quality There are many definitions.

Requirementsofstakeholders. Customersatisfaction.

The most straight forward definition is the production according to previously specified specifications.

Chapter 2

How to Reach the Required Quality Inspection of the product:

Product oriented Possibility of high rate of rejection

Quality control:
Production island Process oriented less rejections

Chapter 2

How to Reach The Required Quality

(Continued)

Quality Assurance:
Other names are Quality system Quality management systems , System oriented involvement of all organization members QA standards, CFR, BS, ISO

Chapter 2

Total Quality Management

Quality assurance does not include many items such as: 1. Environmentalimpactoftheactivity. 2. Safetyandhealthrequirements. 3. Toolsforteamwork 4. Continualimprovement 5. Leadership All these items, together with many others, constitutes the so called TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Chapter 2

Inspection

Quality Control

Quality Assurance ( Q-System)

Total Quality Management

Chapter 2

INSPECTION Quality Control

Quality Assurance

TQM

Chapter 2

Testing (Examination) Techniques

Testing
Qualification Tests (Mostly Destructive) On-Line Tests (Mostly Nondestructive)

Personnel Qualification Procedure Qualification Materials Qualification

Chapter 2

Bending

Tensile

Shear

Destructive Testing

Metallographic

Impact

Break
Chapter 2

10

VT
Others

PT
NDT techniques

Vibration Analysis

MT ECT
Chapter 2

UT

RT

11

Types of Materials to be Tested

RAW

Others

Castings

MATERIALS

Welded

Forged

Rolled
Chapter 2

12

In- Service Inspection

Complete Structure

One Component

Inspected Articles

One System

Piece of Equipment

Chapter 2

13

Introduction & Definitions

o Sound waves are different than electro-magnetic waves. o Audible sound waves 20 20 K Hertz. o For inspection use sound waves with frequencies between 0.5 to 20 Mega- Hertz. o The Piezo-electric effect phenomena is used to create Ultrasonic waves.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

Terminology and Fundamentals o Displacement of atoms leads to:

1. Displacement of the next atom Propagation of the sound wave.

2.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

Characterization of Wave Propagation

1.

Frequency (f):

It is expressed as the number of cycles per second N/S or Hertz

2.

Wave Length ( ):

The distance traveled by the wave during the time period T (or 1/f) seconds.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

Characterization of Wave Propagation

3. Velocity (V):
The speed of wave movement within the medium. The speed with which energy is transported between two points in the medium.

THUS: =V T Or V = f 4. Acoustic Impedance (Z): Z = V

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

Material

Density Kg/m3

V, trans m/s

V, long

Z M Pa s/m

Steel

7850

3250

5940

46.629

Aluminum

2700

3130

6320

17.064

Water

1000

--

1480

1.480

Perspex

1180

1430

2730

3.221

Motor Oil

870

--

1740

1.514

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

Types of Ultrasonic Waves

1. Longitudinal Waves (Compression Waves):
The material particles vibrates in the same direction of the wave propagation.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

2. Transverse (or Shear) Waves:

o Particles move perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. o Moves in solids only. o Nearly half that of the longitudinal waves. o For Steel

VT / VL

= 0.55

Particle movement

Wave Propagation Direction

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

3. Surface (Raleigh) Waves:

o Travels along surface separating two media. o Strong elastic forces medium, and nearly zero elastic forces in the other medium. o Solid/ air interface. o Its velocity value is 0.9 that of the shear wave.

Air Separating Surface

METAL

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

4. Plate or Lamb waves

It moves in plates with small thicknesses (thickness = 3 wave length or less) Velocity depends on the thickness, frequency and material type.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

10

Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves

Velocity of Longitudinal wave: VL = E 2. Velocity of Shear waves: Vs = G = VT 3. Surface Waves: Vsurf = VT x 0.9 Where E = Youngs Modulus of Elasticity = Material Density G = Moduluds of Rigidity

1.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

11

Behavior of Ultrasonic Waves 1.At Normal incidence Waves are at right angel to the boundary:
Some are reflected Some are transmitted. Reflection Coefficient

R= Ir / Ii = {(Z2 - Z1 ) / (Z2 + Z1)}2

Where: Ir reflected intensity

Ii Incident intensity Z1 Acoustic impedance 1

Z2 Acoustic Impedance 2

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

12

Transmitted Intensity
o From the previous equation we can see that the percentage of the transmitted Intensity is (1-R) o If the difference between Z 1 and Z 2 is very high ( Air and steel for example), thus R is nearly 1 o In this case the ratio transmitted is Zero

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

13

Behavior of Ultrasonic Waves 2. At Oblique incidence

Transmitted waves are:

1. Partially reflected 2. The other part suffers mode conversion (Change in the nature of the wave)

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

14

Snells Law

o To determine the direction of the reflected and refracted wave apply Snells Law Sin / Sin = V1 / V2
Where: angel of incident angel of reflection or refraction L

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

15

First and Second Critical Angels

o First Critical Angel:
This is the incident angel that gives the refraction angel of the longitudinal beam 90.

Sinc1 / Sin 90 = VL1 / VL2 o Second Critical Angel:

The incident angel that gives the refraction angel of the transverse beam as 90.

Sinc2 / Sin 90 = VL1 / VT2

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

16

Attenuation of Ultrasonic Beams

Attenuation may occur due to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Scattering Absorption Coupling and surface roughness Divergence

Attenuation Coefficient

For High Thickness Use Law Frequency To decrease attenuation

US Wave Frequency, f
Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

17

Types of Piezoelectric Transducers

I. Quartz Crystals:
Naturally or artificially grown quartz crystals. Thin plates perpendicular to X-axis (Longitudinal) or Yaxis (Transverse).

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

18

Advantages and Limitations

1. Advantages:
High resistance to wear. Insoluble in water. High mechanical and electrical stability. Operates at high temperatures.

2.

Limitations:
Expensive. Low efficiency ultrasonic wave generator.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

19

II. Lithium Sulphate Crystals:

It has the following advantages: high efficiency, less aging, The limitations include: very fragile, soluble in water and could not be used at temperatures above 75 degrees centigrade.

III. Polarized Ceramic Trancerducers:

Efficient generators Could be used at high temperatures.(up to 550 degrees). Disadvantages: efficiency may decrease with age, low wear resistance.
Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

20

Characteristics of Ultrasonic Beam

o For simplification the beam is as shown in the shown figure. o Two distinct regions: Near field and far field.

Dead Zone, Near Zone and Far Zone

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

21

Near Field (Near Zone)

o Waves interfere producing maxima and minima in intensity in the near field o Intensity variation along the axial distance is shown in Fig.

Dead Zone, Near Zone and Far Zone

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

22

Calculation of the near field N = D / 4 = D f / 4V

Where: N = Near Field Length. D = Diameter of the transducer. = Ultrasonic wave length. V = Velocity of sound material. F = Frequency.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

23

Far Field
The intensity of the beam in the far field falls off with distance in accordance with the Inverse square law. Intensity l(proportional to) 1 / (distance)

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

24

Beam Spread o The angel of beam spread or divergence angel where: Sin = K / D = KV / f D

where K is a constant calculated experimentally (see the next tables)

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

25

Values calculated By through transmission Technique

Edge % (dB) K Circular K Rectangular Edge % (dB)

Values calculated By Pulse Echo Technique

K Circular K Rectangular

0% (0 - 00 )

1.22

1.00

0% (0 - 00 )

1.22

1.00

10% (20 dB) 60% (6 dB)

Prepared by

1.08

0.60

10% (20 dB) 60% (6 dB)

0.87

0.74

0.54

0.91

0.51

0.44

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

26

UT Methods, Sensors and Techniques o Basic Test Methods:

At interface, partial reflection and partial transmition. Through transmision uses the transmitted part of the waves. Pulse echo makes use of the reflected portion.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

27

1. Through Transmission Method

o Two probes are used o One is transmitting waves and the other is receiving. o Probes are situated on opposite sides of the specimen.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

28

1.

Through Transmission Method (Cont.)

o In the absence of defects there is no loss in the transmitted signal. (Fig.) o Presence of an internal defect partial or complete loss of the signal may occur (Figs. b &c), according to the defect size.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

29

2. Pulse Echo Method:

o Most commonly used Method. o Transmitter and receivers are at the same side of specimen. o Defects reflect echo before that at the back echo. o Back echo is diminished or disappeared.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

30

3. Resonance Method

o Whenever the thickness of a material equals half the wavelength of sound or any multiple thereof. o By changing the frequency we can change the wavelength. o The transmitter must have a frequency control. o It could be tuned to create a condition of resonance for plate thickness measurement. o Knowing frequency f and velocity V we can calculate the thickness t as follows:

V/2f

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

31

Transducer Frequency
o The transducer frequency is dependent on its thickness : fr
Where

= V / 2t

fr t V

resonance frequency of the transducer thickness of the transducer Longitudinal wave velocity within the transducer

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

32

Basic Performance Characteristics of the Probe

1. Resolution: It is the ability of the probe to separate the echoes of two close flaws (defects). This needs fast damping of the transducer vibration. 2. Sensitivity: Is the ability of the probe to detect echoes from small flaws. This needs slow damping of the transducer. This contradiction needs compromise.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

33

o Sensitivity is proportional to frequency o High frequency leads to High sensitivity In other words o To detect small defects use short wave length (i.e. high frequency) o Smallest detectable defect must be bigger than half wavelength.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

34

Types of Ultrasonic Probes

Types of Probes Contact Type Normal Beam Single Transducer Double Transducer Immersion Type Angle Beam

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

35

Mode of Operation

Twin Crystal Contact Type Probe and its Ultrasonic Propagation

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

36

Ultrasonic Propagation at Great and Small Roof Angles of a Double Crystal Probe

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

37

Angle Beam Contact Type Probe

Prepared by

Immersion Type Prope

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

38

Pulse Echo Testing Technique

Pulse Echo

Normal Beam Contact type

Surface Wave

Thickness Lamination Brazed Joints Bonded Joints

Angle Beam Contact Type Immersion Testing

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

39

Single Transducer Pulse Echo Straight Beam

Double Transducer Pulse Echo Technique

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

40

Thickness Measurement

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

41

Examination of Brazed and Bonded Joints

Sensor

Bad Bonded Area

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

42

Angel Beam Techniques

o US (Ultrasonic Sonic) waves are transmitted into the test specimen at a predetermined angle to the test surface. o Angles between the first and second critical angles are used (usually between 35 and 80). o It is used to locate defects that could not be detected by normal beam.

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

43

Distances for Angle Beam Probes

C t C

AB AC AD AD

= BC = = = DC = + DC =

D Half Skip Distance (HSD) Full Skip Distance (FSD) Half Skip Beam Path Length (HSBPL) Full Skip Beam Path Length (FSBPL)

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

44

Calculation of Distances for Angle Beam Probes

HSD FSD

= t x tan = 2 x t x tan

HSBPL = t / Cos FSBPL = 2 t / Cos

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

45

Part 4

Calibration of the Test System

46

Calibration and Reference Test Blocks

Calibration and reference test blocks having notches, slots and/or holes : Calibration blocks are used to:
1. 2. Determine operation characteristics of the flaw detector and probes. Establish reproducible test conditions

While Test blocks are used to:

1. Compare actual flaws with artificial flaws for sizing reasons

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

47

Commonly Used Calibration Blocks

1. IIW Calibration Block (International Institute of Welding)
Calibration of time base Determination of the angel and beam exit point Resolution and sensitivity

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

48

Calibration of time base with normal beam

250 mm Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

49

Calibration of time base with angle beam

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

50

Other uses of the IIW block

Determining the following:
1. 2. 3. The probe index (beam exit point) The probe angel Pulse length

Short pulse length

Prepared by

Long pulse length

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

51

2. V2 Test Block

Test Block V2 according to DIN 54122

Time Base Calibration for Range up to 100 Using Normal Beam Probe

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

52

Time Base Calibration for Ranges up to 250 mm With Angel Beam Block
Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

53

Checking Probe Angel Using V2 Block

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

54

3. ASTM Area and Distance Amplitude Blocks

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

55

Methods of Setting Sensitivity

The Distance Amplitude Correction Curves (DAC)

Prepared by

Dr. Hassan Shaaban

Chapter3

56