CHAPTER-III
Definition of production:
Production can be defined as creation or addition of utility. Economic production covers the complex of human activities devoted to the creation, with limited resources of goods and services capable of satisfying human wants and because of their limited supply, having limited value. According to Peterson, Production can be defined as any activity that creates present and future utility.
2. Place Utility:
Place utility is created by changing the place of the resources, from the place where they are of little or no use to another place where they are of greater use. Place utility can be obtained by (i) Extraction from earth e.g., removal of coal, iron-ore, gold-ore etc. from earth. (ii) Transferring goods or materials from one place to another where it is more useful, e.g., transferring sand from river bed to the place of construction work, sandalwood from forest to showroom in the city etc.
3. Time Utility :
Time utility is created by all forms of storage, insurance and speculation. There is always a time-lag between the production of goods and their consumption. Goods produced in the present time are available for consumption in the future. Ensuring availability of materials at times, when they are not normally available for production and consumption is time utility. For example, rice is harvested in winter, but its demand continues throughout the year. It is through stocking of rice that its supply can be ensured throughout the year, woolen garments are produced throughout the year but their demand is high in winter, through stocking they are made available when needed.
4. Natural utility:
General Economics production and cost. 4.1 Theory of
Natural utility is the utility available in the free goods provided by nature. For example, free natural goods are like air, water, sunshine etc. provide tremendous utility to sustain life on earth.
5. Knowledge utility:
Utility can be created through spread of knowledge. A number of machines, equipments, apparatus, tools etc., are useful only when people posses necessary knowledge to use and operate them. For example, a personal computer or a laptop is useless for a person if he or she does not know how to operate them.
6. Person Utility:
Person utility can be created by acquiring skills and talents. For example, the services of doctors, engineers, chartered accountants etc., are basis of person utility and services.
7. Possession utility:
Utility is also created when a commodity is possessed by a person who can derive satisfaction out of it. For example, books lying in the college library are not useful left alone. Once these books reach in the possession of the readers they can derive utility out of them.
Any work of art and literature, pass-time hobbies do not fall in the ambit of production because they are done for self-satisfaction.
Factors of Production:
Production requires the use of certain resources. It is the co-operative effort of the various factors of production. They are also known as inputs. Whatever goes into the production process to produce goods and services is called inputs. Factors of production or inputs are divided into two categories: A. Factor inputs. B. Non-factor inputs.
A. Factor inputs: Factor inputs comprise land, labour, capital and enterprise. These are also known as primary inputs, because without these inputs production is not possible.
B. Non-factor inputs. Production also requires certain non-factor inputs such as raw materials, semifinished goods, and other inventories kept by the producing unit to keep the production process going uninterrupted.
1. Land:
Land includes all those resources, whose total supply in the economy is fixed or inelastic. In economics, land does not mean only surface of earths soil or physical territory alone but also all other scarce natural resources which are the free gift of nature such forests, mines, rivers and sea water, temperature, rainfall, etc. According to Marshall, land means the materials and the forces which nature gives freely for mans aid, in land and water, in air and light and heat. The moment these natural resources come under the ownership of an individual or the society, these start earning income in the form of rent, royalty, etc.
Characteristics:
1. Land is free gift of nature: Human beings can neither create land nor destroy it. Land comes to human beings as a free gift of nature, there is no need to pay any price for it so long as it is not owned and controlled by someone. Inelastic Supply: The supply of land is fixed. Human being can simply change the uses of land; they can neither expand nor contract the land area.
2.
Immobility of Land: Land is a static a factor of production. It cannot be shifted from one place to another like labour and capital.
3.
4. Land is a passive factor of production: Land is a passive factor of production. Land itself cannot produce anything. Active assistance of labour and capital is needed to make land productive. It would not yield any result unless deployed usefully through human ingenuity and effort. Lands differ is fertility. Land differs in fertility. No two pieces of land posses the same fertility Mineral resources, river system, forest resources, mountain formation, fertility of soil, etc., differ from one region to another.
5.
4.3
Theory of
Specific factor of production: Land is a specific factor of production because without land we cannot produce anything.
6.
7. Indestructible: According to Ricardo, land is an indestructible factor of production because it cannot be destroyed.
2. Labour:
Labour is a physical or mental effort of human being in the process of production for economic purpose. Any work done for the sake of pleasure of love does not represent labour in economics. Marshall defines labour as any exertion of the body or mind undertaken wholly or partly with some object other than the pleasure derived from the labour itself. It is the human element which distinguishes it from other factors, for it gives rise to special problems regarding mobility, efficiency, unemployment and psychological attitudes.
Characteristics of Labour:
Labour is basically different from other factors of production. Unlike the other factors it is a living factor. The following are the main characteristics of labour as a factor of production: 1.Labour is an active factor of production: Without the active participation of labour, land and capital cannot produce anything. 2. Labour is perishable: It cannot be stored. If the labourer does not work on a particular day, that days labour goes for good. It implies that the labourer cannot store his labour and so he has no reserve price for his labour. 3. Labour is inseparable from the labourer: The labourer has to present himself physically at a place where production activities take place. It implies that the labourer embodies the services he performs. Labourer is the source of his own labour power. 4. Labour is directly connected with human efforts: All labour is manifestation of human efforts both physically and mentally. 5. Productivity of labour can improve: Through education, training, use of better machinery and equipment the productivity of labour can improved. 6.Labour makes a choice between the hours of labour and hours of leisure: The labourer has to make a choice between the hours of labour and hours of leisure. The supply of labour and wage rate is directly related. It implies that as wage rate rises, the labourer tends to increase the supply of labour by reducing the hours of leisure. However, beyond a minimum level of income the labourer reduces the supply of labour and increases the hours of leisure in response to a further rises in the wage i.e., hence, the supply curve of labour is backward bending. 7. supply of labour is inelastic during the short run: General Economics production and cost. 4.4 Theory of
The supply of labour is related to population. It takes a child more than 15 years to develop into a labourer; therefore, supply of labour will be inelastic. 8. Labour differs in productivity. Efficiency and productivity of one labourer differ from another. On the basis labour power, labour may be classified as unskilled labour, semi-skilled labour and skilled labour. 9. Labour in mobile: As compared to other factors, labour is more mobile. Labour can easily move from one place of work to another. 10. Labour has intelligence and Judgment: The labourer has the capacity to think, apply mind and act in the best interest of self and the organisation.
Types of labour:
Mental and Physical labour: The labour that applies more of mind and less of muscle power is called mental labour. The work of a teacher, an advocate, doctor, engineer, research scholar, etc., falls under the category metal labour. Conversely, the labour that uses more of muscle power and less of mental power is called physical labour. For example, the work of a collie, rickshaw-puller, mason, blacksmith etc., is put under the category of physical labour.
Division of labour:
According to Prof. Watson, Production by division of labour consists in splitting up the productive process into its component parts. In the words of Taussing, The division of labour means those people who carry on several operations of a given branch of industry combined for bringing about final results. Division of labour occurs when a labourer confines himself to the production of a single commodity or single sub-process and leaves the production of other commodities or processes to others. Division of labour implies two things; a. Specialization of functions, and b.Co-operation between different labourers.
It is also known as complex division of labour. In a modern economy, large business enterprises divided and sub-divided the process of production of a single commodity and each worker performance one or two of the several processes involved in the production of commodity.
3. Territorial Specialization: This type of specialization occurs when a particular area gets specialized in the production of a specific commodity. For example, labour at Surat has specialized in diamond work, at Srinagar in shawl-embroidery etc.
1. Increase in productivity and reduction in wastage. 2. Better quality products can be manufactured at less cost in short period of
time. 3. Scope for Mechanization, innovation and development widens. 4. Inventions may take place due to expertise of labour in a particular area of specialization. 5. It leads to high degree of Specialization. 6. It leads to better understanding among workers.
Loss of Pride and Responsibility. Monotony in work. Immobility of Labour. Fear of over production increases.
Efficiency of labour:
Efficiency of labour means the amount of work which a labourer can do within a given time. The efficiency of labour refers to productivity of labour, both quantitative and qualitative during a given time. Efficiency of labour is a relative concept therefore; it is always understood and measured in relation to some predetermined standards. Efficiency of labour differs from one labourer to another and is subject to change over time. Efficiency of Labour depends upon; 1. Conditions of Work, 2. Quantity of production, and 3. Quality of production
Increase in National Income. Better Employment Opportunities. Less chance of Wastage. Low Price and More Profits. Innovations may take place in the course of time. Less Supervision.
Mobility of Labour:
Mobility of labour can take any of the following forms: 1.Territorial Mobility: It is also known as geographical mobility of labour. It relates of the movement of labour from one place to another.
2. Occupational Mobility:
When a labourer leaves one occupation to join the other it is called occupational mobility. For example: If a worker leaves a cotton textile mill to join a jute mill it is called occupational mobility. 3.Grade mobility: General Economics production and cost. 4.6 Theory of
When a worker moves from one position to another in the same or other occupation, it is called Grade mobility. Grades are form according to different wage-groups. Grade mobility can assume two forms:
a. Horizontal mobility:
When a labourer moves from one occupation to another on the same grade it is called Horizontal mobility.
b. Vertical mobility:
When a labourer moves from one occupation to another for a higher position it is called Vertical mobility.
3.Capital:
Capital is man-made material factor of production. It is stock concept. All capital is wealth but all wealth is not capital. According to J.S. Mill Capital is the accumulated; product of past labour destined for the production of further wealth. Capital comprises man-made materials which are used for the further production. Goods produced with the help of different factors of production are broadly classified into two categories: 1) Consumer goods 2) Producers goods Capital consists of producers goods and stocks of consumer goods not yet in the hands of consumers. Capital consists of following: 1. Structures, such as private residential houses, factory buildings, commercial buildings, Government buildings etc.
2. Equipments that includes three types of goods, a. Durable consumer goods, like furniture, TV sets, etc. which are yet reach
consumers. b. Durable Capital goods, like machinery, plant, tools, roads, bridges, dams etc. c. Inventories, such as stock of Raw-materials, intermediate goods and finished goods lying unsold with the wholesalers and Retailers
3. Money used for production purposes.
Characteristics of Capital:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4.
is is is is is
the result of past labour. the result of Savings. prospective. a highly mobile factor of production. not a Free Gift. Capital increases the productivity of labour. Capital Secures Continuity in production. It is helpful for further Capital Formation. It acts as Source of research and Development.
Functions of Capital:
4.7
Theory of
business obligations. But, all money is not capital, that part of money which used further production is called capital.
2. Capital and Income: Earnings regularly drawn either from the ownership assets or by doing dome economic activity are called income. That part of income which is saved and used for further production is called capital. Capital is a stock, whereas income is flow. 3. Capital and Wealth:
Wealth comprises the stock of all reproducible and irreproducible goods. All wealth is not capital. That part of wealth which is used for further production of wealth is called capital; on the other hand, all capital is wealth.
Classification of capital:
Capital assists in production if different ways. Capital, on the basis of its use, can be conveniently classified in the following forms: 1. Fixed and Circulating Capital: Fixed capital is one which is durable and which is used in production for a considerable long time. The examples of fixed capital are machines, plants, equipment, factory buildings, dams, irrigation canals, etc. Circulating capital refers to the capital which is used only one once in production. It loses its utility after single use. The examples of the circulating capital are raw materials, seeds, coal, petrol, gas etc. It regularly needs replacement. 2. Material and Personal Capital: Material capital consists of objects which exist in concrete and tangible form and are capable of being transferred from one person to another. Examples of the material capital are machines, tools, transformers, etc. Personal capital comprises all those energies, faculties and habits which contribute to make labour efficient. It includes all the personal qualities of an individual which are non-transferable. Examples of personal capital are art of dancing and singing, art of painting, art of oratory, etc.
3. Sunk and Floating Capital:
Sunk or specialized capital is one which can be used in a specific occupation. Once invested in a particular business, it cannot be withdrawn. Examples of sunk capital are railway bridges, factory buildings, roads, dams etc. Capital is said to be floating or free when it can be changed at will for employment in any branch of industry and can at any time assume a different form. Examples of floating capital are wood, raw materials, electricity etc. 4. Remuneratory and Auxiliary Capital : Remuneratory or wage capital is one which is applied to the payment of labour engaged in production. Auxiliary capital is that which assists the labour to carry out their duties smoothly. Machines, tools, equipment, etc., are the examples of the auxiliary capital.
5. Production and Consumption Capital:
Production capital comprises all those articles which help the labour directly in production. Examples of production capital are raw materials, machines, tools, equipment, etc. Production capital may be material as well as General Economics production and cost. 4.8 Theory of
personal. Consumption capital consists of those materials which indirectly assist in the process of production. Examples of consumption capital are food, clothes, residential accommodation, vehicles, etc.
6. Internal and External Capital:
This classification of capital is based upon the criterion of place. The capital which is the result of domestic savings in the country is called internal capital. Capital which is imported or invited from abroad and used in recipient country is called external capital. The capital received in India from the World Bank, International Finance Corporation etc., is an example of external capital.
Capital Formation:
Production is a continuous process. Whatever goods and services are produced in an accounting year are not consumed instantaneously. A part of current production is consumed, while the remaining part is retained for further production. We may define capital formation as The surplus of production over consumption in an accounting year which is used for further production. Capital formation is regarded as a social process whereby a societys capital stock increases during a given period. According to Prof. Nurkse, The meaning of capital formation is that society does not apply the whole of its current productive activity to the needs and desires of immediate consumption, but directs a part of it to the making of capital goods, tools and instruments, machines and transport facilities, plant and equipment all the various forms of real capital that can so greatly increase efficacy of productive effort. Capital formation plays a vital role in the development of an economy. Generally speaking, higher the rate of capital formation more economically developed an economy would be. It determines the production potential of an economy.
Savings is the foundation stone upon which the edifice of capital formation is erected. A part of the resources is withdrawn from current consumption so as to increase the real savings of a community. The magnitude of the real saving depends upon the will to save, power to save and the facilities to save.
(a) Will to save:
How much a person would be willing to save depends upon the individuals nature. If an individual is foresighted and wants to make his old age secure, he will save more. Some persons are miserly by nature, and whatever the hardships they will save a certain proportion of their money income. Out of family affection people may like to save more with a view to have comfortable future of their dependents. Sometimes people save more in order to command greater respect in the society. Allurement to earn a high rate of interest may also induce people to save more. (b) Power of save: It is the capacity, or the ability to save that depends upon the income of an individual. Higher incomes are generally followed by higher savings. The availability of abundant natural resources and high level of economic development General Economics production and cost. 4.9 Theory of
will create and lead to greater wealth in a country, and therefore the capacity to save will increase. If the distribution of wealth is equitable, everyone will have more money income, and therefore, the power to save will increase.
(c) Facilities to save:
If the country is free from internal disturbances and threat of foreign aggression, people will have opportunities to save. Stability of money value also facilitates savings. Frequent fluctuations in the money value, and particularly inflation reduce the purchasing power of the people, as a result, savings get discouraged. Facilities of investment in productive activities encourage saving.
2.
Moblilisation of Savings:
In case people save money but it is hoarded or does not enter into circulation, it will not facilitate the process of capital formation. There should be a widespread network of banking and other financial institutions to collect public saving and take them to prospective investors.
3.
Investment:
Process of capital formation gets completed only when real savings get converted into real capital assets. A country should have an entrepreneurial class which is prepared to bear the risk of business and invest the saving in productive occupations so as to create new capital assets. If the process of capital formation is to succeed, all these stages should be interlinked. In the absence or slackness of any of these stages the process of capital formation will remain incomplete.
4. Enterprise:
Business is full of risks and uncertainties. The task of bearing risks is called enterprise. The man who bears the risk of business is called an entrepreneur. Several types of risks are involved in business. Sometimes, the demand falls short of supply; at another time, the supply fall short of demand. The market fluctuations may cause heavy losses therefore; the services of entrepreneurs are required to bear all such risks of business.
Functions of entrepreneur:
Besides risk bearing, the entrepreneur has to perform several other important functions which are as follows: 1.Risk-bearing function: The most important function of an entrepreneur is to bear the risk of business. There is always a time-lag between production and consumption of goods. The goods produced in present are consumed in the future. Therefore, heavy risk is involved in equating the current production to future demand. No other factor production except the entrepreneur bears the risk of the business.
2. Decision-taking function:
Decision-taking is an important function of an entrepreneur an entrepreneur has to take decisions as regards the followings matters: a.Selection of the product: An entrepreneur would choose a trade which seems to be more profitable, subject to such qualification as his personal interest, the degree of risk involved his temperament, his technical knowledge, the amount of capital required and estimate of his own ability.
b. Selection of the type of the firm:
4.10
Theory
The entrepreneur has to decide whether he would prefer sole proprietorship, partnership or a joint stock company. Further, he has to decide whether it should be private limited company or a public limited company.
c. Selection of the location of plant:
The entrepreneur has to decide where to install the plant, so that advantages of location can be obtained. Economic and non-economic factors, both are essential while making choice about the location of a plant.
d. Selecting techniques of production:
An entrepreneur aims maximising his output and minimise the cost of production. He has to decide about the most suitable combination of land, labour and capital so as to obtain maximum production. e.Selection of the size of the firm: The entrepreneur has also to decide whether to produce on a large scale, or on a small scale. He will have to take into account the cost of production, returns to scales, economies of scale, and profitability, while taking any decision as regards the size of the firm.
3.
Distributive function:
Peaceful and congenial atmosphere inside the factory premises is essential for smooth production activity. The entrepreneur has to keep all factors of production contended. He has to decide about the share that each factor of production should receive from the total produce.
4. Innovative function:
Innovation is considered as an important as an important function of an entrepreneur. Innovation is defined as the commercial use invention. Individuals and experts working for corporation conduct basic research and invent new products, new technology, new sources of energy, and soon the entrepreneur makes use of these inventions for commercial purposes. Innovation is never static. A progressive and talented entrepreneur should always take a lead to introduce a new product or a new technique of production. It does involve some risk but riskbearing is prime function of entrepreneur. Innovations help a firm to earn large profits.. In modern economies, the role of organizing the factors of production is regarded as a managerial function, which can be performed by a paid manager i.e. by a highly skilled form of labour. What really distinguishes enterprise from other factors of production is that it has to carry all the risks and uncertainties, and is rewarded for bearing these, in the form of profits. Qualities of a good Entrepreneur: 1. Far-sightedness. 2. Courage. 3. Quality of leadership 4. Quality of organizing the labour. 5. Experience. 6. Knowledge of business. 7. Moral qualities. 8. Knowledge of psychology.
4.11
Theory
Production function:
The term Production function means physical relationship between inputs used and the output produced. Production function is purely a technical and functional relation which connects which connects quantity of inputs required to produce a good to the quantity of output produced. Production function is the process of getting maximum output from given quantity of inputs in a particular time period.
4.12
Theory
Production function is a functional relationship between inputs and resulting output. Change in input by one unit has an effect on the output of the firm.
4. Production function is determined by the state of technology and
inputs: Production function is dependent on the state of technology and inputs available with the firm. Technology refers to the sum total of knowledge of the means and methods of producing goods and services. Input is anything that is used by the firm in the process of production. Thus, input includes every type of productive resource available with the firm. 5. Change in inputs determines nature of output: Change in inputs is essential to change production function. The proportion of change in inputs and output is not same always.
6. Production function includes only technically efficient combinations
of inputs: Production function in economic analysis refers to combination factor inputs which maximise the output and minimise the cost of production.
P = f (La, Lb, C, E)
Where, P is the level of output. La is the land input. Lb is the labour input. C is the capital input. E is role of enterprise.
4.13
Theory
Long-run refers to a period long enough to permit changes in all the factors of production. A firm has enough time to install a new plant or raise a new building in response to increased demand.
Marginal Production (MP): Marginal product is defined as the change in total product resulting from the employment of an additional unit of a variable factor. Marginal Product is the change in Total Product due to change in the quantity of variable factor i.e., labour. The knowledge of marginal product helps the firm in its decision making process as it tells the firm how much will be the addition in output by adding one more unit of labour.
3. 4.
Both AP and MP can be calculated by TP. When AP rises them MP also rises but MP>AP.
3. When AP is maximum then MP = AP.
4.14
Theory
sharply become maximum and then start declining. 2. TP curve in the beginning increases at an increasing rate then at a diminishing rate and after becomes maximum starts declining. Both AP and MP curves rise sharply, AP curve becomes maximum and starts declining but never become negative. MP curve becomes maximum and starts declining sharply and reaches zero and thereafter becomes negative. 3. When TP curve is maximum, MP curve touches zero. 4. When TP curve is falling, MP curve is negative. 5. As long as TP curve is positive, AP curve is positive. 6. All the three curves are inverted U shaped.
6. Relationship Between TP, AP And MP: 1. When both AP and MP curves are rising, MP curve rises at a faster rate. 2. When AP curve is maximum, MP curve cuts AP curve i.e. MP curve =AP curve. 3. When both AP and MP curves are falling, MP curve falls at a faster rate.
4. There is a situation when AP curve is rising and MP curve is falling but AP curve falling and MP curve rising never happens. 5. AP curve never becomes negative but MP curve can become negative.
A P
2 2. 5 3 3 2. 8 2. 5 2. 1 1. 7 1. 3
M P
2 3 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
Analysis
MP & AP both increases; MP > AP TP also increases MP = AP, AP = Maximum MP & AP both decreases, MP < AP; TP increases MP = 0, TP = maximum
4.15
Theory
Law of Variable Proportions occupies an important place in economic theory. Keeping other factors fixed, the law explains the production function with one factor variable. In the short run when output of a commodity is sought to be increased, the law of variable proportions comes into operation. Therefore, when the number of one factor of production is increased or decreased while other factors of production are constant, the proportion between the factors is altered. Due to change in the proportion of factors there will also emerge a change is total output at different rates. This tendency in economics is called the Law of Variable proportions.
Assumptions:
The law of variable proportions is based on following assumptions: 1. Constant technology: The state of technology is assumed to be given and constant. If there is an Improvement in technology the production function will move upward. Factor proportions are variable: The law assumes that factor proportions are variable, if factors of production are to be combined in a fixed proportion, the law has no validity.
2.
Homogeneous factor units: The units of variable factor are homogeneous. Each unit of variable factor is identical in terms quality and quantity with every other unit.
3.
4. Short-run: The law of variable proportions operates in the short-run when it is not possible to vary all factor inputs available with the firm. 5. Except one all the other inputs are fixed: There are many fixed inputs and only one variable input. Only physical input and output are considered: The law explains only the physical inputs and output in the production function.
6.
Law of variable proportions has three stages: Stage: I Law of increasing returns; Stage: II Law of decreasing returns; and Stage: III Law of Negative returns.
Law of variable proportion has Three stages: Labour TP AP MP Analysis 1 2 2 2 Stage I Law of increasing returns 2 5 2.5 3 3 9 3 4 General Economics of production and cost. 4.16 Theory
4 5 6 7 8 9
12 14 15 15 14 12
3 2 1 0 -1 -2
AP = MP and AP is maximum Stage II Law of decreasing returns MP = 0, TP is maximum Stage III Law of Negative returns
The position of three stages can also be explained as under: Stages Total Product (TP) Marginal Product Average Product (MP) (AP) Stage I Increases at an Increases and reaches Increases and increasing rate, then at maximum point and reaches its increases at begins to decrease. maximum point diminishing rate. Stage II Increases at Decreases and becomes After reaching its diminishing rate and zero maximum point, reaches its maximum begins to decrease point Stage Begins to fall Becomes Negative Continues to III diminish
In the initial stages of the production the fixed factors are underutilised in relation to variable factor employed on it. Fuller utilisation of fixed factors calls for greater application of the variable factor which in turn leads to increase in total and marginal product. 3. Division of labour and specialization: Due to increase the scale of production, it enables the firm to adopt division of labour and specialisation. Division of labour & specialisation enables increase in skill, efficiency of labourers, saving of time and innovation in the application of technique of production in the production process by the workers which leads to increasing returns to scale.
4. Perfect combination between fixed and variable factors:
With the increase in the variable inputs in the production process the firm tries to achieve the perfect combination of fixed and variable factors input ratio in the production process which increases the productivity at an increasing rate. Explanation of diminishing returns: 1. Fixity and Inadequate relative of fixed factors: Once the point is reached at which the amount of variable factor is sufficient to ensure the efficient utilization of the fixed factor, then further increases in the variable factor will cause marginal and average product to decline because the fixed factor then becomes inadequate relative to the quantity of variable factors. General Economics of production and cost. 4.17 Theory
2.Imperfect substitutability: According to Mrs. Joan Robinson factors of production are not perfect substitutes of each other. There is a limit to the extent to which one factor of production can be substituted for another. Beyond this limit perfect ratio between various factors gets disturbed and productivity tends to increase at a diminishing rate. Explanation of Negative returns: 1. Too excessive quantity of variable factor: In this stage the quantity of variable factor becomes too excessive relative to the fixed factor so that they get in each others way with a result that the total output falls instead of rising. In such a situation a reduction in the units of the variable factor will increase the total output. Stage of Operation: The three stages together constitute the law of variable proportions. Since the second stage is the most important. So stage II will be stage of operation and because of that in practice we normally refer to the law of variable proportion as the law of diminishing returns.
2. Constant Returns to Scale: Returns to scales are said to be constant when a proportionate increase in all the inputs results in proportionate increase in output. For example if input is increased by 100% but the output also increases by 100% then it is the situation of Constant Returns to Scale. Diminishing Returns to Scale: Diminishing returns to scale occur when a simultaneous increase in all inputs in the same given proportion result in a less than proportionate increase in the output. For example, if input is increased by 100% but the output increases only by 75% then it is the situation of Diminishing Returns to Scale.
3.
4.18
Theory
The following are the internal and external economies and diseconomies which are enjoyed or suffered by the firm due to large scale production.
Technical Economies:
Technical economies involve use of bigger and better types of machines to improve the technique of production. It, thereby, reduces cost. Economies of techniques are further sub-divide into:
a. Economies of superior techniques:
When the size of the firm grows it becomes possible to have bigger and better type of machines to improve the technique of production and thereby reduce the cost.
b. Economies of increased dimensions:
A big firm enjoys reduction in cost when it increases its dimensions. As the dimension grow, a big firm can have the various processes of production conducted within the premises of the firm. It saves time and cost.
c. Economies of linked processes:
At times it is not possible for a firm to have various processes of production conducted within the premises of the firm. This difficulty is overcome by linked processes, i.e., different firms agree to function as one single firm as far as production is concerned however control and ownership remains separate.
2.
Managerial Economies:
Managerial economies arise due effective and efficient actions of the managers in the firm. Managerial economies arise for various reasons, the most important ones are as follows: a. Specialisation of management: It is possible for large firms to make division of managerial task. The existence of a finance manager, a human resource manager, a production manager, marketing and sales manager and so on is common in large firms. The division of work increases the experience of manager in their own area of responsibility and leads to a more efficient working of the firm. This is also called de-centralisation of decision making. b.Mechanisation of managerial function: It is important for large scale firms to apply techniques of management involving a high degree of mechanisation such as telex machines, television screens, computers etc, these techniques save time in decision making process and speed up the processing of information, as well as increasing its amount and accuracy.
3.
Marketing or commercial economies refer to such reduction in the cost of production which is secured by the purchase of inputs at the lowest price and sale
4.19
Theory
of final goods at the highest possible price. In other words, marketing economies arise due to the following: a.Economies of purchase: Large firms purchase raw-materials and factors of production on a large scale. Because of bulk purchases, large firms have more bargaining power to bring about reduction in their price. Also, large firms may employ more and better experienced staff to deal with the purchase of raw material. b.Economies of sale: Large firms can bring about reduction in the cost of selling by employing a highly specialized staff well-versed in the art of pushing up the sales. Also, large firms may take up more advertising activity to push up sales. Further large firms can enter into exclusive agreements with distributors and wholesalers, who undertake the obligation of maintain a good service department for the product of the manufacturer.
4.
Financial Economies:
Financial economies refer to advantages secured by a firm in matters of finance. Large firms have high creditworthiness in the market. It is in advantageous position to secure loans at easy and lower rates. Also, large firms can get loans from private sources. It is also possible to have large overdrafts from the banks.
5.
Risk bearing economies may be secured in matters of risk as large firms as large firms are in position to bear risk. Large firms can diversify their: a. Output (i.e. produce more than one product). b. Market (i.e. supply the product in more than one market). c. Sources of supply (i.e. get the supply of raw materials from more than one source). d. Process of manufacture (i.e. to have alternative process of manufacturing available).
6.
Labour economies arise for various reasons, the most important being specialisation and division of labour. In large firms, work is divided and each labourer specializes in one particular process. This improves their skill and increases their efficiency in their field of specialisation. They are near perfect in their field. It increases the amount of output, reduces labour cost and
Internal Diseconomies:
Internal diseconomies are internal to the firm. they are defined as those diseconomies which enable the firm to produce less efficiently at large levels of output.
1. Technical Diseconomies:
Technical diseconomies arise if production is increased beyond the optimum level. When production takes place beyond the optimum point, maintenance cost rises, risk of accidents are more and in case of accidents heavy losses are made.
2. Financial Diseconomies:
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Theory
Financial diseconomies arise if finance is secured beyond the optimum limit, i.e., when too much money is taken on loan it leads to concentration of wealth and income and too much pressure on firms to prove their credit worthiness.
3. Risk Bearing Diseconomies:
Risk bearing diseconomies arise when diversification is increased beyond the optimum limit. When too much diversification is taken up, liquidity is lost. In that situations, risk of strikes and lockouts are more.
4. Managerial Diseconomies:
Managerial diseconomies arise when manager is overburdened with output exceeding optimum level. There is scarcity of factors of production and there is imperfect substitution. The manager is overburdened and faces the problem of control and co-ordination. The result is that managerial problems and inefficiencies increase.
B. External Economies and Diseconomies:
External economies:
External economies are external to the firm. External economies arise to a firm because of expansion of an industry. They are of three kinds:
1. Economies of concentration:
Economies of concentration arise because of concentration of firms in a particular area. It gives rise to the following economies: a. Labour: All firms get better and more skilled labourers without doing any effort. Since they are skilled, it saves the cost of training them. b. Financial: All firms get better financial facilities. The facilities are easily available and cheaper in cost. c. Transport and storage: All firms have easy access to better and cheaper transport facilities and storage facilities. Huge storehouses are built up in such areas. d. Marketing: All firms get better marketing facilities on account of concentration of firms in a particular area.
2. Economies of concentration:
Economies of information are reaped by each firm as, without making any efforts, all necessary and crucial information regarding labour, output, profit, etc., are easily available to them. When a firm is located in an isolated area, it is difficult for it to know the market conditions. But a large number of firms in particular area start a bulletin or information paper which gives vital statistics. Separate surveys and collection of data is bound to be very expensive. That is why, economies of information reaped by each firm saves time and cost.
3. Economies of Disintegration:
Localisation or concentration of industry gives rise to economies of disintegration. One single firm does not produce enough wastage or by-products to enable some specialized firm to make use of them. But if a large number of firms are General Economics of production and cost. 4.21 Theory
established at one place, then it is possible to have more specialized firms making use of by-products. For example, comb, button, etc., are made from wastage or by-products.
External Diseconomies:
External diseconomies are external of the firm. They are defined as those disadvantages in production which arise from increase in output of the firm. External diseconomies arise to a firm in the form of rise in unit costs because of expansion of an industry. External diseconomies are external costs that spill over into the cost of other firms, some examples of external diseconomy are: 1. An industry in course of expanding its output throws so much wastage that it increases the cost of disposing waste materials for firms in the same area.
2. Pollution of lakes and rivers creates external diseconomy for the fishing industry
and health hazards for city residents. 3. Creation of a new shopping complex increases traffic, causing external diseconomy for the people
THEORY OF COST
COST ANALYSIS: Cost analysis refers to the study of the behaviour of cost in relation to one or more production criteria, namely, size of output, scale of operations, prices of factors of production and other relevant economic variables. It is concerned with financial aspects of production.
Cost Concepts:
General Economics of production and cost. 4.22 Theory
1. Accounting costs and Economic costs: Accounting costs relate to those costs only, which involve cash payments by the entrepreneur of the firm. Accounting costs are also called explicit cost. Costs of factors owned by the entrepreneur himself and employed in his own business are called implicit costs. Implicit costs also known as Non accounting costs. For example, 1. Rent of self owned building. 2. Interest of self owned capital. 3. Wages of self owned entrepreneur. Thus, economic costs include both accounting costs and implicit costs. Economic cost = Accounting cost (Explicit cost) + Non Accounting Cost (Implicit cost) Economic Profit = Total Revenue Economic cost Accounting Profit = Total Revenue Explicit cost. 2. Outlay costs and Opportunity costs: Outlay costs involve actual outlay of funds on wages, material, rent and interest etc. whereas opportunity costs refer to the profits foregone or sacrificed from alternative ventures not taken up as the limited factors of production are used for a particular purpose. The opportunity costs are not recorded in the books of account as they represent only the sacrificed alternative. The opportunity costs arise when the factors of production can put to a number of uses and if they are used in a particular process of production, they cannot be put to an alternative use. Opportunity cost is then defined as the maximum return that could be obtained from an alternative use of resources, but is foregone by employing the resources in their present use. Examples of opportunity costs: 1. In a cotton-textile mill that spins its own yarn and uses it, the opportunity cost is the revenue that could have been secured if the yarn would have been sold.
2. At the personal level a student who decides to take-up a full-time course of study, has to give up a paid occupation. His opportunity cost of studies is the potential earning from the paid occupation sacrificed. Opportunity cost concept is useful in incurring capital expenditure. An investor has to calculate the profitability of different projects before investing in one of them. He has also another alternative of investing in a project or earning interest by depositing the money in the bank. Similarly, investment in equity shares involves opportunity costs measurable in terms of sacrificed income from alternative investment. In business decisions, the concept of opportunity costs plays a very important role. The business firm should not concentrate on what the business firm is doing. It has to take into consideration the other alternatives and opportunities available to it. The success of the business is governed by the opportunity costs taken into consideration. Opportunity cost of factor refers to its value in its next best alternative use or it is the cost of forgone opportunity. 3. Direct or Traceable costs and Indirect or Non-Traceable costs: General Economics of production and cost. 4.23 Theory
Direct costs are costs that are readily identified and are traceable to a particular product, operation or plant. Example: Direct material, direct labour and manufacturing costs. Indirect costs are not readily identified and not visibly traceable to a particular product, operation or plan. For Example: Indirect material, indirect labour and indirect expenses. 4. Fixed and variable costs: Fixed costs are those costs which do not vary with the level of firms output. They are the costs of fixed or indivisible factors. Fixed factors are those factors which cannot be easily varied with size of the output. It requires a comparatively longer period to make changes in them, i.e. buildings, machinery etc., these costs require a fixed expenditure irrespective of the level of output e.g. rent, property taxes, interest on loans. Even if the output is zero, fixed costs must be incurred. As output expands, they remain the same. However, these costs vary with the size of the Plant and are a function of capacity. On the other hand, Variable Costs are those costs which vary directly with the level of output. They are the cost of variable factors. Variable factors are those factors which can be easily varied with the changes in the level of output, e.g. operative Labour, raw-material, fuel for running the machines, wear, and tear on equipment, when output is Zero, variable costs are nil. As output increases variable costs also increases. COST FUNCTION. Cost function is a functional relationship between cost of a product and the various determinants of cost. In cost function, cost is the dependent variable and all the other variables are the independent variables. Cost function is a mathematical relationship between cost of production and the various determinants of costs. Cost functions are derived from the production function, which describes the technically efficient method of producing a commodity at any point of time. Cost function can be expressed as follows: C= f (O, S, T, P) Where, C= Cost of output O= Size of output S= size of plant T= Time under consideration P= Prices of factors of Production Thus, cost is basically a function of the level of output of firm, the size of its plant, time and prices of factors or production. Cost function can be linear or curvi-linear depending upon the behaviour of the variables under study.
Determinants of Costs:
1. Size of Output:
Cost is affected by the size of output. Generally, as the level of total output increases the total cost also increases. Average and marginal costs, in such a case, however, will fall initially but rise afterwards.
2. Size of Plant:
Cost is inversely related with the size of plant. As the size of plant increases, costs decline and as the size of plant decreases, costs rise. Fixed costs, however, of bigger plant are higher than that of smaller plant.
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Theory
3. Prices of input:
Higher the prices of inputs, higher will be the costs of production. However, change in cost depends upon the contribution which that factor of production makes to the total product. If price of factor which is negligibly used in production increase, cost will rise marginally only.
4. Period under Consideration:
During Short period, costs tend to rise sharply as compared to long-period during which the increase is not that sharp.
5. Technology:
State of technology has big influence over cost, the factor Technology is itself a multidimensional factor, determined by the physical quantities of factor inputs, the quality of factor inputs, the efficiency of the entrepreneur, both in organizing the physical side of the production and making entrepreneur both in organizing the physical side of the production and making the correct economic choice of techniques. 6.Level of Capacity Utilization: Cost not only depends upon the size but also on the efficiency in utilization of capacity, costs, specially fixed costs tend to fall with higher utilization of capacity.
Output (Q) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
TFC 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
TVC 0 8 13 16 20 26 35 47 63 83
TC 10 18 23 26 30 36 45 57 73 93
Relationship between Average Cost and Marginal Cost From the above table the following relations can be explained: 1. MC and AC both can be calculated by TC. 2. When AC falls, MC also falls but AC > MC 3. When AC rises, MC also rises but now MC > AC 4. When AC is minimum, the MC = AC. In other words, MC curve cuts to AC curve at its minimum point (i.e., optimum point). 5. There is also abnormal situation when AC falls then MC rises. But opposite never happened.
Table showing Total, Average and Marginal cost: Outp Total Average Total Marginal Analysis ut Cost Cost cost
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 28 34 38 42 48 56 66 78 ---20 14 11.3 9.5 8.4 8 8 8.25 8.67 ---10 8 6 4 4 6 8 10 12 AC > MC AC decreases MC also decreases
Why AVC, ATC and MC are curves U-shaped? : Production and Cost Function.
It is due to Law of Variable Proportions. Law of variable proportions (diminishing returns) states that as the units of variable factor is increased, MP first rises and then falls. When MP rises, MC falls and when MP falls. When MP rises, MC falls and when MP falls, MC rises. It is the behaviour of MC, which determines the behaviour of AC. when MP is maximum then AC is minimum and when AP is maximum then AC is minimum. Under 2nd stage MC and AC both raises.
In the long-run the firm will produce the output at which SAC is minimum, it is clear than in the long-run the firm has a choice in the employment of plant and it will employ the plant, which yields minimum possible unit cost for producing a given output. It is to be noted in the above figure, that LAC curve is not tangent at the minimum point of SACs. When LAC declines SAC is tangent to the falling portion of SAC. When LAC rising - SAC is tangent to the rising portion of SAC. When LAC minimum SAC is tangent to the minimum point of SAC. The long-run average cost curve will be a smooth curve enveloping all short run average cost curves, so it is called enveloping curve. Long-run cost curves are often called a Planning curve because a firm plans to produce any output in the long-run by choosing a plant on the LAC curve corresponding to the given output The long-run average cost curve helps the firm in the choice of the size of the plant for producing a specific output at the least possible cost. Explanation of the U Shape of the LAC Curve: LAC curve is a U shape curve. This shape of LAC depends upon the returns to the scale. Returns to scale may be increasing; constant or decreasing. We can summarize all this as follows: Returns to scale LAC Internal & External Increasing returns to LAC decreases Economies arise here scale: Constant returns to LAC minimum Set off economies by scale diseconomies Decreasing returns to LAC increases Diseconomies arise here scale
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Theory