ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS 1. What is etymology? Etymology is the study of the origin of word. 2.

What is the relationship between etymological and stylistic characteristic of words? The relationship between etymology and stylistic characteristic of words is, in fact, the relationship between formal and informal words, belonging to the formal strata, are often used in formal text, documents or as scientific e technological terms. In contrast, native words, belonging to informal strata and in many cases having great expressive emotional value, are often used in daily language, in conversation and in informal text. 3. What are international words? International words are words, ether of political, economic, scientific or technological nature borrowed by several languages and not just by one. Ex: TV, radio, telephone, cassette. 4. What are etymological doublets? Etymological doublets are pairs of (or several) words, more or less similar in meaning and phonation, taken into a language from the same source at different times. shirt skirt canal channel captain chieftain shade shadow hotel hostel hospital 5. What are translation-loans? Translation-loans are a special type of borrowings taken into a language by means of literally translating foreign words after their pattern. hp en black box cht xm grey matter nn KT bong bng bubble economy u vo, u ra in put, out put im nng hot spot WORD BUILDING 1. What is word-building? Word-building is the process of building new words from the resources of a particular language. 2. Structurally, what main types of words can be found in the English language? 4 main types: - Root words are words that have only one root morpheme in their structure. Eg: boy, girl, pen, pencil - Derived words are words that have one root morpheme and one of several affixes in their structure. Eg: teacher, artist, development - Compound words are words that have 2 or more root morphemes in their structure. Eg: wallpaper, classroom - Shortenings/ contracted words are words formed by contracting certain elements of an existing word or word group. Eg: TV, exam, bus (omnibus) 3. What is affixation? Affixation is a way of word-building, in which a new word is formed by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. 4. Etymologically/ productively/ semantically/ functionally how many types can affixes by classified into? a. Etymologically, affixes can be classified into 2 types: - Native: -ish (English, childish), -dom (freedom, wisdom), -hood (childhood, motherhood)

- Borrowed: -ion (union, session), -ute (attribute, constitute), -ate (appreciate, create, congratulate) b. Productively, affixes can be classified into 2 types: - Productive: -ize (computerize, modernize), -able (comparable, changeable) - Nonproductive: -hood (brotherhood, childhood), -en (widen, darken) c. Semantically, affixes can be classified into 5 types: - Location: extra- (extramural, extramarital), sub- (subnormal), sur-/super- (supervise, surface) - Negative and positive: in-/il-/im- (inability, impossible), mis- (misspell, misunderstand) - Time and order: post-/ re-/ pri/ pre- (postgraduate, rediscover, primary, premature) - Size: macro-/ maxi-/ mega-/ semi- (macrobiotic, maximum, mega-project, semi-final) - Number: pen-/ tri- (pentathlon, pentagram, triangle) d. Functionally, affixes can be classified into 4 types: - Noun-forming suffixes: -ance (importance, allowance), -ness (happiness, laziness) - Verb -forming suffixes: -en (widen, lengthen), -ate (appreciate, congratulate) - Adj-forming suffixes: -al (cardinal, maternal), -ous (curious, dangerous) - Adv-forming suffixes: -ly(happily, simply), -ward (forward, backward) 5. What are productive/ nonproductive affixes? - Productive affixes are those which are often used to derive new words especially neologisms and nonce-words at present. - Non-productive affixes are those which r not often used to derive new words at the present time. Eg: - dom + past: wisdom, boredom, icingdom nonproductive + now: newspaperdom, gangsterdom, stardom productive. 6. What is conversion? Conversion is a way of word-building in which a new word is formed by changing the category of part of speech of an existing word with each morphemic shape remaining unchanged. Eg: I never want to do anything with a must. Now that you are a member of a new family you should learn all their dos and donts. 7. Grammatically/semantically, what should be noted in conversion? Grammatically when a word is formed by conversion it is subject all the grammatical changes of the new part of speech. Eg: Semantically, when a word is formed by conversion its meaning maybe slightly different from that of the word from which it was mad, however there are usually certain semantic and logical associations between the 2 (which help the readers and listeners to deduce the meaning of the new word). 8. What is shortening? Shortening is a way of word-building in which a new word is formed by contracting certain elements of an existing word or word group. It consists of 3 subtypes namely: clipping, abbreviation, blending 9. What is clipping? Clipping is to make a new word from a syllable (sometimes 2) of the original word. Clipping is sub-divided into 4 subtypes: a. Initial clipping: telephone telephone phone, aeroplane plane b. Final clipping: laboratory lab, examination exam c. Initial-final clipping: influenza flu, refrigerator fridge. d. Medial clipping: mathematics maths, detective tect, pantaloons pants. 10. What is abbreviation? Abbreviation is to make a new word from initial letters of an existing word group. APEC: Asian pacific economic co-operation. ABAC: Apec business advisory council. SARS: severe acute respiratory syndrome.

11. What is blending? Blending is to make a new word by merging parts of existing words into 1. smog = smoke + fog Interpol = international + police brunch = breakfast + lunch 12. What is composition? Composition is a way of word-building in which a new word is formed by combining 2 or more stems. Eg: schoolboy, schoolgirl 13. Structurally how many types can compounds be classified into? 3 types: neutral compounds, morphological compounds, syntactic compounds. 14. What are neutral compounds? Neutral are compounds formed by combining 2 stems or 2 words without using any linking elements. 15. How many types can neutral compounds be subdivided into? 3 - Simple neutral compounds (compounds whose components are root words). Eg: sunflower, bedroom - Derivational compounds (compounds of which 1 or both components are derived words). Eg: music-lover, blue-eyed - Contracted compounds (compounds of which 1 component is a shortening). Eg: TV set 16. What are morphological compounds? Morphological compounds are compounds formed by combining 2 stems with the help of a liking vowel or consonant. Eg: spokesman, sportsman, speedometer, handicraft. 17. What are syntactic compounds? Syntactical compounds are compounds formed from segments of speech preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relation typical of speech. Eg: She sits at home these days. no syntactic compound. She is a sit-at-home these days 18. Semantically, how many types can compounds be classified into? 2 types: non-idiomatic compounds, idiomatic compounds. 19. What are non-idiomatic compounds? Non-idiomatic compounds are compounds whose meanings can be seen as the sum of the meanings of their components. Eg: stageartist, horserace, racehorse 20. What are idiomatic compounds? Idiomatic compounds are compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the meanings of their components? The meanings of their components have been completely or partially changed or lost. Eg: bluestoking, butter-finger 21. Graphically/ phonetically/ semantically/ syntactically how can compounds be distinguished from word-combination? - Graphically, components of a compound are usually6 jointly written or hyphenated while words in a word-combination are always separately written. Eg: bluebottle blue-bottle blue bottle compound word-combination - Phonetically, a compound normally has only one stress falling on the 1st syllable while each word in a word-combination has a stress of its own. Eg: bluebottle blue-bottle blue bottle

compound word-combination Compound adjectives are stress in the same way as word-combination. - Semantically, a compound expresses only 1 concept. While a word-combination expresses 2 or more concepts (depending on the number of word in word-combination). Eg: blue bottle blue-bottle blue bottle an insect colour - container - Syntactically, a compound is treated as a complete unity individual: Each compound belongs to 1 certain part of speech and is, therefore, subject to the grammatical changes of 1 part of speech. In contrast, each word in a w-com is an independent unit having all the grammatical changes of its own part of speech. Extra word can be added between them. Eg: blue bottle blue-bottle blue bottle bluebottles blue bottles bluish bottles blue and red bottles blue and red plastic bottles 22. What is onomatopoeia? Onomatopoeia is minor type of word-building in which a new word formed by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animal, insects, human beings and inanimate objects. Eg: bang, flush, rumble, cricket 23. What is reduplication? Reduplication is minor type of word-building in which a new word formed by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant. Eg: bang-bang, ta-ta, bye-bye, ping-pong, chit-chat 24. What is back-formation (reversion)? Back-formation/ reversion is minor type of word-building in which a new word formed by subtracting what was mistakenly associated with an English affix. Eg: television to televise, babysitter to babysit, beggar to beg, editor to edit MEANING 1. What is meaning? Meaning can be more or less described as a component of the word through which a concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with the ability of denoting real objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions. Symbol: word. Referent: what word denotes. Symbol and referent has indired relationship. Thought or reference: notion 2. What is semantics (semasiology)? Semantics is a branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning. 3. What is the modem approach to semantics based on? The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the assumption that the inner form of the word presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word. 4. What is the semantic structure of the word? The semantic structure of the word is the assumed structure of its inner form 5. What main semantic components can be found with the semantic structure of the word? - Denotative component (denotation) - Connotative component (connotation) 6. What is denotation? The denotative component or denotation is the primary or literal meaning of the word expressing the conceptual content.

7. What is connotation? The connotative component or connotation is the secondary or additional meaning of the word or its implication giving a more or less full picture of the meaning. 8. What is polysemy? Polysemy is the existence of several connected meanings within a word as the result of the development or changes of the original meaning. Eg: mouse - a kind of rodent animal - a device to control computer 9. Why is context important in understanding the meaning of the word? Context is important in understanding the meaning of the word because it can serve a powerful preventative against any misunderstanding of meanings. 10. What is transference? Transference is the process of development of a new meaning of the word. 11. What are the main types of transference? There are two types of transference - Metaphor - Metonymy 12. What is linguistic metaphor? Metaphor is the transference based on resemblance or similarity For example: * Similarity in appearance: + mouse (a kind of rodent animal) a device to control com + eye (part of body) eye of storm + drop (of water) eardrop * Similarity in position + foot (part of body) foot of the tree + head (part of body) head of the plane * Similarity in function + hand (part of body): + hand of watch/clock + key (to the door) key to success/exercise * Quality, characteristic. + star (celestial body) movie/pop star + fox (an animal) that womans very foxy + snake (an animal) hes a snake society * Size + Sea (large water area covering the earth) sea of trouble + elephant (an animal) this is an elephant task 4 me. 13. What is linguistic metonymy? Metonymy is the transference based on contiguity or relatedness For example: * The relation between name of a container and what is contained inside. + A table for 4, please food + How many glasses did U drink today? wine * The relation between geographical names and the product. + Bordeaux and Champagne. * Relation between name of inventor and his/her invention or name of author and his/her works. + Honda: she drives her Honda to work every day. + T Hoi: That 8 year old girl is very fond of To Hoai * Relation between name of material and product made of material. + Vietnamese female selected football team (squad) has won more gold while the mans selected football team won only bronze.

* Name of separate past a whole thing or vice versa. + My bike has gone wrong again. + Lend me a hand, please. + 2 heads r better than one. 14. What is generalization/ broadening of meaning? Generalization/ broadening of meaning is the extension of semantic capacity of a word during the process of historical development of the word. 15. What is specialization/ narrowing of meaning? Specialization/ narrowing is the restriction of semantic capacity of a word during the process of historical development of the word. Eg: queen: wife wife of king. 16. What is degeneration/ degradation? Degeneration/ degradation is acquisition of less emotive, less pleasant meaning of the word during the process of historical development of the word. Eg: Ass: donkey anus 17. What is elevation? Elevation is acquisition of more emotive, more pleasant meaning of the word during the process of historical development of the word. HOMONYMS 1. What are homonyms? Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning. 2. Traditionally, how many types can homonyms be classified into? 3 types: - Homonyms proper are homonyms which are the same in sound and spelling. Eg: Marriage is not a word but a sentence. - Homophones are homonyms which are the same in sound but different in spelling. Eg: night knight, scent cent - Homographs are homonyms which are the same in spelling but different in sound. Eg: bow /bau/ - /bou/, lead /li:d/ - /led/ 3. What are the main sources of homonyms? * Phonetic changes. - They are their - Youre your * Borrowing - bank: side of river bank: establishment where money is deposited in account - rite: religious ceremony right: correct, true * Word-building + Conversion: comb - to comb + Shortening: vet: veteran veterinarian + Sound imitation: bang: a loud, sudden explosive noise a fringe of hair combed over the forehead * Split polysemy 4. What is split polymemy? Split polysemy is the loss of the semantic association or logical association between different meanings of a polysemantic word resulting in homonyms. Eg: spring a season of the year to leap elasticity stream

5. What is the basic difference between the traditional classification of homonyms and the one provided by Smirnitsky? - Traditional classification: sound, spelling - Smirnitsky: sound, spelling, part of speech, paradigm. 2 types: + Full homonyms are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm Eg: match (n) a game, a contest a short piece of wood used for producing fire + Partial homonyms: 3 subgroups: Simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of parts of speech. Their paradigms have one identical form, but it is never the same form. Eg: to found (v) found (v) (past indefinite, past participle of to find) Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech which have one identical form in their paradigms. Eg: rose (n) rose (v) (past indefinite of to rise) Partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. Eg: to lie (lay, lain) (v) to lie (lied, lied) (v) SYNONYMS 1. What are synonyms? Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech an possessing one ore more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts. 2. What is duality or the dual characteristic of synonyms? By duality or the dual characteristic of synonyms we mean synonyms are both the same and different. They are the same in that they often share denotative component and they are different in that their connotative component are usually different. 3. What are the functions of synonyms? - Synonyms add precision to ach detail of description and show how the correct choice of a word from a group of synonyms may colour the whole text. - The principle function of synonyms is to represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations. - Synonyms are used for stylistic purpose. 4. Why can synonyms be said to be one of the most expressive means of language? Synonyms can be said to be one of the most expressive means of language because they represent the same phenomenon in different aspects, shades and variations and add precision to each detail of description and show how the correct choice of a word from a group of synonyms may colour the whole text. Thats why synonyms are used for stylistic purpose. 5. What are criteria of synonymy? - Notional criterion: synonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same notion but different either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristic. - Semantic criterion: synonyms are words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but different in connotations, or in connotative components. - Criterion of interchangeability: synonyms are words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotative meaning. 6. According to Vinogradov, how many types can synonyms be classified into? 3 types: - Ideographic (words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning) Eg; create manufacture, stroll trot, big

- Stylistic(differing in stylistic characteristic) Eg: begin commence, build - construct - Absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics) Eg: start begin, end finish, pants trousers 7. What is modern approach to be classification of synonyms based on? A more modern and a more effective approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotation. 8. What is dominant synonym? The dominant synonym is a central word of a group of synonyms expressing the notion common to all synonyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent. EUPHEMISMS - ANTONYMS 1. What is euphemism? Euphemism is the substitution of a mild, indirect or even a vague word or expression for an offensive, direct or unpleasant one. 2. What are the main functions of euphemism. Euphemism can be used to serve 3 main purposes: - To show ones politeness - To avoid hurting other peoples feeling - To avoid taboos 3. Why can euphemisms be said to be a kind of synonyms? Synonyms can be said to be a kind of synonyms because they are words that are used interchangeably for some others. Certainly, they are used to avoid offensive, direct of unpleasant words. 4. What are social taboos? Social taboos are all what considered inappropriate inspired by social conventions, customs and common practices. 5. What are superstitious taboos? Superstitious taboos are all what considered inappropriate caused by the lack of knowledge of natural phenomena, religious belief or the phobia of spiritual evils, dangerous animals, scared objects, plants, etc 6. Political taboos? Political taboos are all what considered inappropriate, going against the law, constitution, government policy or the mainstream politics. 7. What are antonyms? Antonyms are words belonging to the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings. 8. How many types can antonyms can be classified into? - Root-word antonyms are those words which are completely different in sound and form: in out, here there, war - peace - Derivational antonyms are words which are formed by derivation: decisive indecisive, code - decode FORMAL OR INFORMAL? 1. What is basic vocabulary? Basic vocabulary is the central group of vocabulary whose stylistic neutrality makes it possible to use them in all kinds of situation, both formal and informal, in verbal and written communication. 2. What is informal vocabulary? Informal vocabulary induces words which are often used in ones immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. Informal vocabulary consists of: colloquial, slang, dialect words and wordgroups.

3. What are colloquial words? Colloquial words are word which are often used in every in every day in conversational speech by educated and uneducated people of all age groups. 4. What is slang? Slang is language of a highly colloquial style, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense. Eg: buck = dollar Bean = money Egghead = professor Dinosaur = old-fashioned pp Boo/booze = party Cop = police Jab = vaccinate 5. Dialect words? A dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. 6. What is formal vocabulary? Formal vocabulary induces words which are mainly associated with the printed page or used in scientific prose Formal vocabulary consists of 3 main components: learned words; archaic and obsolete words; professional terminology. 7. What are learned words? Learned words are words mainly associated with the printed-page, in scientific prose or used in academic writing. Eg: approximately = about Determine = work out Investigate = look over Endeavour = try 8. What are archaic and obsolete words? Archaic and obsolete words are words which are not much or no longer in use in the present day English but still found in very formal writing in poetry or in literally works. Eg: Albeit Hitherto Aforesaid PHRASCOLOGY 1. What is a phraseological unit? Phraseological unit is a stable word group characterized by a completely or partially transferred meaning. Eg: to skate on thin ice = to be in dangerous situation 2. Why can a phraseological unit be characterized by a double sense? Phraseological units or idioms are characterized by a double sense because the current meanings of constituent words build up certain picture, but the actual meaning of the whole unit has little or nothing to do with that picture in itself creating an entirely new image. Eg: black sheep doesnt refer to any colour or animal but a spoiled, naughty child. 3. Structurally/ semantically, what is the different between phraseological unit and free word group? * Semantically, the meaning of free word-group can be seen as the sum of the meanings of its components while the meaning of a phraseological unit doesnt correspond to the meaning of its components (their meaning may be completely or partially changed). Eg: to lend sb a book (free w-group) to lend sb a hand (phrase unit) * Structurally, a phraseological unit is different from free word-group in 3 main features:

a. Restriction in substitution No word in the phrascological unit can be replaced by any other. Eg: + to lend sb a hand # to lend sb a leg. But + to lend sb a book ~ to lend sb a story. b. Restriction in introducing any additional (components) Extra words are rarely added to a phraseological unit. Eg: + to lend sb a hand # a dirty hand + to lend sb a book a interesting book c. Grammatical invariability: Components of phrascological unit are not readily subject to further grammatical changes. Eg: to lend sb a hand # to lend sb hands. 4. Structurally/ semantically, what is the difference between a phraseological unit and a proverb? * A proverb is often expressed in a sentence while a phraseological unit/ idiom in a phrase. Eg: A bird in hand is worth a in bush * Semantically, a phraseological unit often indicates a single concept while a proverb indicates the collective experience of the community. They moralize, give advice, give warning, admonish, and criticize. REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 1. What are historical Americanisms? English words or expressions used by American people with their own meaning while the same used by English people have changed their meaning or have been replaced by other words. Eg: homely = ugly (AE) = simple/plain (BE) 2. What are proper Americanisms? Proper Americanisms are words or expressions created by American people to name things, objects, events, natural phenomena, geographical features, plants, animals that they find in their surrounding. Eg: egg-plant, cat-fish, sweet potato Proper Americanisms also include words referring to things, objects whose name was already given in British English. Eg: chemists (BE) = drug store (AE) Lift (BE) = elevator (AE) Railway (BE) = railroad (AE) 3. Lexically/grammatically / phonetically / graphically / what is difference between American and British English? Lexically the AE vocabulary is characterized by 4 main features: - Historical Americanisms. - Proper Americanisms - Borrowings. - Shortenings. 4. Explain why the number of borrowings in AE is much larger than that in BE? The USA is a melting pot, a multi-national, multiethnic, multi-cultural, multi-racial, multireligions society. During the process of working and living, pp exchange their languages and this accounts for the much larger number of borrowings in AE than that in BE. * Grammatically: - The difference in the use of auxiliary verb will: In AE, will can be used, for all persons to indicate futurity while in BE, shall is used for the 1st person singular and plural and will for other persons. When the English people use will for the 1st person singular and plural, it implies willingness, promise, and determination. - Difference in the use of present perfect and simple past:

Such adverb as just, already, yet, ever, never are often used with present perfect tense in BE while with simple past in AE. Eg: BE: Ive recently got a letter from her AE: I recently got a letter from her - The use of different preposition after th same verb or in the same structure. Eg: BE: In John Street. AE: On John Street. - The difference in the way to express present subjunctive mood Eg: BE: I suggest that U should stop smoking. AE: I suggest that U stop smoking