Journal of Mechanical Working Technology, 17 (1988) 33 - 49

E l s e v i e r Science P u b l i s h e r s B.V., A m s t e r d a m - P r i n t e d i n T h e N e t h e r l a n d s 33

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCEFOR PROCESSSELECTION

TORBEN LENAU and LEO ALTING Institute of Manufacturing Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 425, DK-2800 Lyngby (Denmark)

ABSTRACT

This paper describes why process selection plays a very important role in the modern factory, and describes how to build systems for process selection, that can be used by the designer while he is creating the design. Artificial intelligence and knowledge engineering offers new possibilities for automation of process selection and many other areas within manufacturing, and it will be discussed how production knowledge can be represented and handled in an expert system. Furthermore a system for selection of surface treatment processes that uses advanced knowledge engineering techniques will be presented. Surface treatment is a fast developing area with many new and improved processes, and is therefore an excellent area for investigating the possibilities for expert consulting systems. The system is based on an programming environment for expert system development , where knowledge is represented as frames and rules. This prototype system is developed as a joint program with a major Danish company.

INTRODUCTION

CIM

Computer Integrated Manufacturing functions.

includes integration of computers within CAD, as integrated simula-

many different CIM

Most often the emphasis is on Computer on

and not on integration. production computer tion (CIP). This

At IME different research programs includes research (ref.l+2) intelligent

are carried out jointly under the title aided process planning (ref.3).

and production

(ref.3), with a miniature manufacturing cell

(CIM Minilab)

a test environment

0378 - 3804 / 88 / $ 03.50

1988 E l s e v i e r Science P u b l i s h e r s B . .

84

C I P - C o m p u t e r Integrated P r o d u c t , o n
De-e,~,n
Design by

~E
Design for Production

/
,~ Rough plann/ng

CAD

-" .FEM analyses

Design i s . Group Technology Process and Assembly knowledge

c dough ~( -a,~,. )
.L P'an J
Produc ~on preparmt/on

iPrductinI

G~,

,Process data
.Tool data

/ -~. Process planning

.Fixturc/Pallstte
dala

C:lO~AMam [ ~ _ ,
{N

/ ~1_ l ] :Productionpla,, TeStprogramOf ~ I C NC program~

I,-1 by Simulation ~ ~Process plan

H Testof Pians |~Fineplan

Product/on

Production Control (Philosophy/S~ategy, make detailed plan, Real time control)l Parts Fixtures Tools Inspec~on Gauging Packing I - ~ i v e r } IDispatching I d~Nen#j
A P - CLP87 AB

Fig. i. Computer Integrated Production

(CIP)

A very important step is the integration of process and production knowledge into the design activities. This integration of on autoset the to between of CAD and CAM is partly obtained through the use instructions which normally are based

mated process planning systems manufacturing finished design. shape some to

(CAPP). CAPP systems produce a

But since the designer usually creates a CAPP In is

design/ systems order therefore

with a certain process

in mind and the design therefore

degree is tailored to this particular process, get the right product at the lowest price the designer can make it

can only produce good plans when this is given as input. necessary decisions. that qualified

manufacturing

To do this the designer needs supporting tools that can requirements that those processes imply. Quick and

assist the reliable

him in selecting manufacturing processes and in investigating

35 answers e.g. can are needed to questions that arise in the a certain material be welded, can it be what processes can produce a special design used in phase, acid or

environments,

geometry

information on design rules for diecast parts. While the is using the CAD system he should be able to get such from the design procedure.

designer of

information

an expert system, which is tailored to be a natural part

When discussing integrated production it is important to on how design and production information correlate. The

focus

designer

is with his decisions responsible for 80-90% of the product costs, since raw materials, processes, production methods incl. more or less are determined in this phase. CAD systems modelling the product and storing this model in a assembly enable but

database,

there is no access to production knowledge, that could to a more optimal design. There is therefore a need for

contribute advanced

information systems that can supply the designer with the relevant information, relevant design rules and company standards. Through possible processes, the and use of knowledge engineering techniques about it is

realistic to represent knowledge

production consequendesigners the also under-

possibilities,

limitations, advantages and

ces, and use this in intelligent consulting systems for or process planners. Knowledge Engineering tasks like advanced motion In Knowledge Engineering

(KE) is a p a r t of (AI), which

broader includes standing. knowledge

research field Artificial Intelligence

(robotics) and speech declarative and

procedural know-

are treated together but separated from

control

ledge, which means that domain knowledge is not mixed with program and data structures. what to In other words it is possible to It is tell the

systems possible

do rather than how to do it.

therefore rather

to concentrate the effort on the problem

itself

than on program details, and therefore use more time to experiment with prototypes and in that way reach a better result.

Changes

in systems for process selection do not

only

concern

the declarative knowledge the is the procedural knowledge procedural knowledge

(facts e.g. machine dimensions) but also (rules e.g. IF a fine surface traditional handled in is usually the condition programming program e.g. new

required THEN consider grinding). In

structure

itself.

Changes in the procedural knowledge

86 rules This require c h a n g e s d i r e c t l y in the p r o g r a m and recompiling. the that it like

is not w i t h o u t problems.

For one t h i n g it r e q u i r e s t h a t

program makes

source code is a v a i l a b l e and second that the p e r s o n the changes is a skilled programmer. W i t h KE t e c h n i q u e s

is p o s s i b l e to express b o t h types of k n o w l e d g e in an E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e that is e a s i l y understood.

An systems

important with CAD

topic and

is the i n t e r f a c i n g other existing

of

such

intelligent Many

computer

systems.

p r o d u c t s are today m o d e l l e d on CAD systems and it w o u l d be hand natural to e x t r a c t p r o d u c t i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y from and use it in expert c o n s u l t i n g systems. On g r a p h i c s can be a v e r y p o w e r f u l tool to illustrate database

therefore the the CAD other process

l i m i t a t i o n s and capabilities.

Interpretation solved s a t i s f a c t o r y simple geometrical a represent

of

a CAD model is a p r o b l e m that

not

yet

is use to such In a

(ref.4+5). The reason is that CAD s y s t e m s primitives like arcs and lines or that only solids uses and a data s t r u c t u r e

model,

p r i m i t i v e s can not r e p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the p r i m i t i v e s . CAD part, rent systems today do the d e s i g n e r t r a n s l a t e his ideas about

w h i c h includes the functional r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the primitives part into is the CAD s y s t e m lost. W h e n a representation planner since the or

diffethe is

where

relational program

process

computer relational

needs to e x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n from the CAD m o d e l there

p r o b l e m s i n t e r p r e t i n g the i n f o r m a t i o n right,

i n f o r m a t i o n is e i t h e r not there or only g i v e n implicit.

This

is

the

reason why a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h to (FBD), is being

CAD

called FBD uses

the a to of

feature b a s e d d e s i g n different product features best number type of

considered. that information. FBD has some

p r i m i t i v e s c a l l e d features

relates Examples

f u n c t i o n s and to m a n u f a c t u r i n g are slots, holes and chamfers. for p a r t families, i.e.

limitations therefore with a (e.g. gear

since the b a s i c features have to be predefined, suited of geometric,

and are parts

families of

p r o d u c t i o n or o t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s

shafts or pump houses). An e x a m p l e of an FBD system is the Part F a m i l y D e s i g n and M a n u f a c t u r i n g system on (PFDM) d e v e l o p e d at IME (ref.l-3). P F D M is based A u t o t r o l $7000 C A D / C A M s o f t w a r e and the DCLASS tree processor

37 from checks to first Brigham Young U n i v e r s i t y in Utah. Design

procedures
done

and used
by a

are b u i l d into DCLASS d e c i s i o n trees, w h i c h a l s o are The d e s i g n is d e f i n i n g a m a i n shape and t h e r e a f t e r a n u m b e r of Currently the s y s t e m w o r k s w i t h two p a r t

c o n t r o l the g r a p h i c r o u t i n e s in S7000.

geometric

features.

families,

r o t a t i o n a l and a prismatic.

The meaning, A

word

process

is u s e d in

many

contexts

with

different here. mate-

and it shall t h e r e f o r e be e x p l a i n e d how it is u s e d where

p r o c e s s can g e n e r a l l y be d e s c r i b e d as an a c t i v i t y

rial,

e n e r g y and i n f o r m a t i o n are t r a n s f o r m e d into the d e s i r e d p a r t In this c o n t e x t a p r o c e s s is u s e d as a e.g. turning, drilling, synonym for a or

(ref.6).

m a n u f a c t u r i n g method, surface process machine center). treatment. (e.g.

milling, accomplish cases

forging a a

A m a c h i n e can n o r m a l l y

single single milling implies

t u r n i n g on a lathe),

but in some

covers m o r e p r o c e s s e s In o t h e r words,

(drilling and m i l l i n g on a

a p r o c e s s is a g e n e r a l t e r m t h a t

a g r o u p of m a c h i n e s or m a n u f a c t u r i n g m e t h o d s w i t h c o m m o n c h a r a c t e ristics.

DESCRIBING

PROCESS SELECTION

Before

b u i l d i n g an e x p e r t s y s t e m it is i m p o r t a n t for the system. increasingly Tong (ref.7)

to

describe so a

the d o m a i n t h a t the s y s t e m will w o r k within, requirements using three

and s p e c i f y g o a l s and

d e s c r i b e s h o w to do of specification, Kim

d e t a i l e d levels

k n o w l e d g e level, uses system of the a

a f u n c t i o n level and a p r o g r a m level. but adds m a i n t e n a n c e of

(ref.8) finished

s i m i l a r approach,

the

as an extra level. Kim also e m p h a s i z e s t h a t the initial from p r o b l e m for a k n o w l e d g e a b e n e f i t / c o s t criteria. based system of

selection must be

evaluated

In the case

process difficult a better

s e l e c t i o n the b e n e f i t s of a well f u n c t i o n i n g s y s t e m are to measure directly, but the e x p e c t e d b e n e f i t s from

f l e x i b i l i t y and a s h o r t e r d e v e l o p m e n t c y c l e are obvious.

The k n o w l e d u e level On the k n o w l e d g e level p r o b l e m types, domain knowledge or and what

s o l u t i o n t y p e s and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s are described. selection s e q u e n c e of p r o c e s s e s that can p r o d u c e a g i v e n d e s i g n

For p r o c e s s considering

the m a i n p r o b l e m is to d e t e r m i n e w h a t p r o c e s s

38 its special characteristics (part geometry, basis material,

functional requirements).

D o m a i n k n o w l e d g e for p r o c e s s s e l e c t i o n i n c l u d e s on the one hand different machines hand types of m a n u f a c t u r i n g k n o w l e d g e about availability, cost), (e.g. h i s t o r y of g o o d and processes bad and (e.g. capabilities, and on the other designs). the sources and

product experience

Domain k n o w l e d g e comes from several sources, advantages are files

and it is one of

in k n o w l e d g e e n g i n e e r i n g that t h o s e d i f f e r e n t into one. Process k n o w l e d g e is found in in production

combined and

books

among e x p e r i e n c e d p e o p l e

departments,

w h i l e p r o d u c t k n o w l e d g e n o r m a l l y lies in the d e s i g n departments.

Requirements about (e.g. what

to

s o l u t i o n s include a n s w e r input

types and

(information output types

p r o c e s s e s that can be used)

g r a p h i c interface)

and h a r d w a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n

(central/de-

central solutions).

The f u n c t i o n level At the f u n c t i o n level problems, are with d e t a i l e d further. problems as s o l u t i o n s and d o m a i n knowledge

W h a t on the k n o w l e d g e level was a b l a c k box and s o l u t i o n s as output, now become

input

s u b p r o b l e m s and subsolutions. tion describe defined the d e s i r e d system.

At this p o i n t d i f f e r e n t It is a m o n g o t h e r

representaway to analyzed clear whether How is

t e c h n i q u e s are c o n s i d e r e d in o r d e r to find the b e s t things or

w h e t h e r the p r o b l e m can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as h a v i n g a s i n g l e goal that can be u s e d to b a c k t r a c k solutions,

d i f f e r e n t types of input can lead to d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n types. to d e s c r i b e a s y s t e m u s i n g d i f f e r e n t KE r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d later in the paper.

The p r o q r a m level At this level the d e s c r i p t i o n that was d e t a i l e d at the f u n c t i o n level is translated Depending it into s t r u c t u r e s t h a t can be used on be the a computer. other hand on the type of s o f t w a r e u s e d this can job using more

r e l a t i v e l y small task if an a d v a n c e d s o f t w a r e tool is used. can be quite a large

On the

primitive

s o f t w a r e tools. It is i m p o r t a n t to d i v i d e s y s t e m s p e c i f i c a t i o n into levels like this to a s s u r e e f f i c i e n t p r o g r a m development. If for instance

system

development is done mainly at the program level,

overview

is easily lost, and too much time spend on programming details.

KE AND

OTHER

REPRESENTATION

TECHNIQUES

Knowledge within declarative

engineering software. and

(KE)

is a very is

fast

developing divided In

area into

computer

Knowledge knowledge

roughly

procedural

(ref. 9) .

traditional

programming those two are separated since the procedural knowledge is represented as the program itself and the declarative knowledge is kept on files as data. The consequence static and hard to change. In knowledge is that the programs are engineering declarative

and procedural knowledge are represented together and this gives a number of advantages and possibilities.

Fig. 2. An expert system structure.

Another the of

word for procedural knowledge is decision tree method data relations are

logic. in

One In a is A

way to represent the decision logic is through decision trees. decision conditions, systemized hierarchical structure

(a tree). A set of branches represent a set

and the corresponding action to each condition

the part of the tree structure that is connected to the branch. decision tree contains both the single condition/action and how they are interrelated. engineering, is the order of which the rules can fire

relations (execute) represenhand

In decision trees, unlike knowledge and this

fixed to their position in the tree structure, that decision trees are a very well

tation is therefore not so flexible. This means on the other structured

representation

40 w h e r e it is easy to get an o v e r v i e w of the p r o g r a m structure.

if steel then p o s s i b l e surface t r e a t m e n t s are Surface treatment if a l u m i n u m then p o s s i b l e surface t r e a t m e n t s are

Galvanize Chrome plate Cadmium plate Alodine Anodize Blanch

Fig. 3. A d e c i s i o n tree for surface treatment.

Declarative knowledqe In knowledge engineering can facts, what also are called referred Predicate Such

declarative

knowledge,

be r e p r e s e n t e d u s i n g the m e t h o d s s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k s and frames.

to as p r e d i c a t e calculus,

c a l c u l u s is a formal l a n g u a g e of symbol s t r u c t u r e s symbol where

(ref.10).

s t r u c t u r e s are b u i l d up from terms and p r e d i c a t e terms are used for the name of things An e x a m p l e and of

symbols, predicates predicate

represent

the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n things.

c a l c u l u s is the s t a t e m e n t

(is-a shaft bar)

that in o t h e r w o r d s e x p r e s s e s the fact that a shaft is a bar. words Logical like "shaft" and "bar" are terms w h i l e "is-a" is like "and", "or" and "not", and a connectors

The

predicate. quantifiers to express

"for

all" and "there exits", m a k e it

possible

d e c l a r a t i v e k n o w l e d g e in a useful way.

I
Fig. 4. A s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k for m a c h i n e s in a c o m p a n y Semantic tures

>[

>I

i
struc-

n e t w o r k s r e p r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e b a s e d on n e t w o r k

(ref.ll). A s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k c o n s i s t s of p o i n t s c a l l e d nodes

41 connected the nodes. by links Similar nodes and called arcs d e s c r i b i n g and the relations in between predicate An

to the t e r m s

predicates names and 4.

calculus, example

arcs r e p r e s e n t s net

relations.

of a s i m p l e

semantic

is s h o w n

in Fig.

more general called nodes

w a y of r e p r e s e n t i n g (ref.ll).

declarative

knowledge

is

structure but the

frames

It r e m i n d s

of s e m a n t i c In frames

networks, several

are h e r e m o r e than

just names.

attributes of a frame

and procedures system

can be a t t a c h e d in Fig.

to e a c h node. are also

An example to

is s h o w n

5. N o d e s

referred

as objects.

is-a Okuma ID : #9 P o w e r : 2 kW No.axis : 3 L a n g u a g e : ISO > NC-Lathe

is-a > Machine

ID :internal ID Power : No.axis : L a n g u a g e : ISO (default) frame

Power

instance

frame V (procedure : if a new m a c h i n e is a d d e d then update postprocessor)

Fig. 5. A frame r e p r e s e n t a t i o n for m a c h i n e s in a company.

Procedural Rules dural

knowledqe the r e l a t i o n s Procedural or o b j e c t in the between facts are also be called proceusing rules

about

knowledge. rules

knowledge

can

expressed Production

production

oriented

programming.

can be e x p r e s s e d

form

IF

(condition)

THEN

(action).

When action happens

t h e IF p o r t i o n specified the rule it and by

of a rule

is s a t i s f i e d is

by the

facts, When

the this

the THEN portion

performed. To express factors Simple on

is said to fire or execute. to u s e c e r t a i n t y

uncertain both rule of the

based

knowledge condition systems

is p o s s i b l e the action

side of the rule. to o v e r v i e w

seem to b e d i f f i c u l t

as the n u m b e r

rules

42

increase

(ref.12).

This d i s a d v a n t a g e the rules

can to a

large

extent

be

a v o i d e d by o r g a n i z i n g

logically

in sets.

Object communicate logical When a

oriented

programming

is a m e t h o d

where

objects is

can a

w i t h each o t h e r by s e n d i n g c o u l d be a p h y s i c a l is sent to an o b j e c t

messages. thing it

An object

unit which message

like a car or a lamp. invokes a procedure The same If a the "give data thinks the

attached message for

to the o b j e c t w h i c h g i v e s sent to d i f f e r e n t the m e s s a g e objects "work"

some kind of response. can h a v e d i f f e r e n t

effects. "car", If

example

is send to the the m e s s a g e

object

procedure same

in "car" will

interpret

as "drive". it as

message

is sent to the lamp for o b j e c t

it w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d programming units

light". is of,

Advantages organized

oriented

are that one

easily

in the same l o g i c a l l y of a p r o c e d u r e

that

and that

the d e f i n i t i o n

is c o n n e c t e d

with

object.

Inference The

engine in an e x p e r t structure. rules and system The is the inference engine engine

third element

also c a l l e d control either

the control

inference This

is used to through is

h o w to a c c e s s forward chaining

facts.

can be Forward

done

or b a c k w a r d

chaining.

chaining

also c a l l e d part of

data d r i v e n The

search because engine

it starts checks

in the

condition parts

of the rule. all rules

inference

the c o n d i t i o n the rules, In the part

and w h e n c o n d i t i o n s the c o n d i t i o n (goal)

are satisfied, p a r t of o t h e r been

associated and so on

actions unt i l a

may satisfy desired the

action

has

reached.

backward action. of the the the rules

chaining part rule r ul e s user.

inference

engine

compares

the goal w i t h

of the rules. becomes again, The

If a m a t c h This

is found the c o n d i t i o n subgoal is then

a subgoal.

compared

with

and if no m a t c h engine

is found a q u e s t i o n in w h a t

is a s k e d to o r d e r the

inference

also c o n t r o l s

are searched,

and w h a t to do w h e n rules

conflict.

The

inference

engine

keeps

t r a c k of its s o l u t i o n s base). This m e m o r y

in a t e m p o r a exaif

ry c o m m o n m e m o r y mine what happens the u s e r base can realizes also

(an a s s e r t i o n

is u s e d to

if some answers

are changed, a wrong

and to b a c k t r a c k The

that he has g i v e n be

answer.

assertion i.e. so far. the

u s e d to show the of r e a s o n i n g

current

status,

conclusions

and lines

found by the s y s t e m

43 C h o i c e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m e t h o d s The c h o i c e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m e t h o d s d e p e n d s a m o n g o t h e r things upon the task the s y s t e m is g o i n g to solve. Tasks that are are in ends

i n t e r e s t i n g in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h C o m p u t e r I n t e g r a t e d P r o d u c t i o n consulting simple and planning. Where consulting systems results a n s w e r s like w h a t a p r o c e s s to use, p l a n n i n g s y s t e m s

up w i t h m o r e c o m p l e x answers like a s e q u e n c e of machines. The previous mentioned in representation techniques LISP or the can be

programmed Another

directly

a b a s i c l a n g u a g e like

PROLOG. expert

possibility

is the expert systems shells and (ESDE). In the low level

system developing environments

languages a

LISP and PROLOG a l m o s t a n y t h i n g can be p r o g r a m m e d but it can be v e r y large job. techniques In the shells and in the ESDE m a n y of

programming or

are i m p l e m e n t e d in a way,

so they can be u s e d m o r e

less generally.

Most shells do only have a s u b s e t of the r e p r e s e n -

t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and are u s u a l l y c l o s e d systems, w h e r e t h e r e only is l i m i t e d access to add user d e f i n e d programs. ESDE are larger and programming systems that until r e c e n t l y w e r e v e r y expensive

only w o r k e d on d e d i c a t e d e x p e n s i v e h a r d w a r e nes). use

(so-called L I S P - m a c h i to very

Now it is p o s s i b l e to get ESDE at a r e a s o n a b l e c o s t and more g e n e r a l w o r k s t a t i o n s or some of the m o r e p o w e r f u l

PC's.

The ESDE offers m o s t of the p r o g r a m m i n g t e c h n i q u e s and it is easy to add own p r o g r a m m i n g at m a n y levels. A lot of data and r e l a t i o n s are subject to frequent

changes

w i t h i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g and d e s i g n k n o w l e d g e information and need there is about machines,

. The k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n s properties, structure. a.o., Another have

tools, materials,

is a need for a d y n a m i c k n o w l e d g e

that several p e o p l e in d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s

must

a c c e s s to the same knowledge. nal

A s o l u t i o n for d e c l a r a t i v e k n o w l e d g e relatiostanof of a Using

to b o t h t h o s e needs is the use of an i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e n d a t a b a s e t e c h n o l o g y and k n o w l e d g e b a s e d systems. database have access two techniques for the s t o r a g e One is by and the

dardized knowledge multiuser common Compared

retrieval handling use of

m a j o r advantages. problems, can be that

right

and a n o t h e r is the utilized other

data

format

programs. have

w i t h d e c e n t r a l i z e d data storage,

central d a t a b a s e s

the well k n o w n a d v a n t a g e s of c o n s i s t e n t and up to d a t e data.

44
MODEL FOR A PROCESS SELECTION SYSTEM

the f o l l o w i n g

it will be d e s c r i b e d selection

h o w to s p e c i f y using the

and

build

manufacturing described

process

systems

previous

methods.

It is i m p o r t a n t that stands system the s y s t e m the b a s i c

in any expert

as well

as o t h e r so

computer he/she

systems under-

seems t r a n s p a r e n t

to the user,

idea of how the p r o g r a m works. only

If the u s e r sees a are k n o w n , a

as a b l a c k box w h e r e might

input and o u t p u t

consequence ly also if t h e r e

e a s i l y be a s y s t e m that errors

is not used,

particularIt is and

are n o n e x p l a i n e d that the

or w r o n g can

conclusions. correct is

important

user e a s i l y

errors that

supplement

information.

Another

important

issue

systems the

must be be easy to use. system with for a long time it again.

If for i n s t a n c e

the user has not used

it m u s t not take too long to get a c q u a i n t e d have advanced

On the o t h e r hand the s y s t e m m u s t satisfy the e x p e r i e n c e d user.

fea t u r e s

that will

Knowledqe

level level d e m a n d s Here regarding problem, that the than profile knowledge problem it and of

On the k n o w l e d g e solutions selecting are

set up.

it is r e a l i z e d

a manufacturing

process

is m o r e c o m p l e x

first

seems to be.

If it was p o s s i b l e

to set up a final

w i t h all time, those

specifications/requirements it would also possible But

for the d e s i r e d to find a process

process that since

at one matches the

requirements. first

the p r o b l e m simple

is i t e r a t i v e that

designer many

establishes Looking

profile

probably processes

matches the

processes. finds the

into t h o s e d i f f e r e n t requirements

designer changes the

out that he has m o r e profile. The

and he t h e r e f o r e be able to

system must therefore

handle

iterative

type of consulting.

One system and easy number

way

of h a n d l i n g

this kind of i t e r a t i o n The first s u b s y s t e m solutions, with

is to

divide a

the rough and the

into two subsystems. search

handles

fast

for p o s s i b l e

few

questions will limit

access of

by "trial solutions

and error". to a few,

This p r o c e d u r e the

after which

second

subsystem

take over. each

Here m o r e d e t a i l e d that

analyses

are c a r r i e d

out to i d e n t i f y of dividing to the

process

can be used.

One of the a d v a n t a g e s

the p r o b l e m

into two steps

is that only k n o w l e d g e

relevant

45

actual p r o c e s s will be u s e d in s t e p 2.

Another graphics, output

s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t c o u l d be that it m u s t i n t e r f a c e both concerning input (e.g. from a curves). CAD system)

to and how

( i l l u s t r a t i o n s of questions,

R e q u i r e m e n t s of answer on

questions be

are p r e s e n t e d to the u s e r and h o w he m a y by s e l e c t i n g one or m o r e o p t i o n s

those the he

are also important. answered screen.

O f t e n will it be c o n v e n i e n t t h a t q u e s t i o n s can displayed

This h e l p s the u s e r since he is told w h a t a l t e r n a t i v e s and invalid a n s w e r s are avoided.

can s e l e c t from,

Much

k n o w l e d g e is c o m m o n to a g r o u p of p r o c e s s e s and it

would For metal at one

t h e r e f o r e be r e a s o n a b l e to store this k n o w l e d g e at one place. e x a m p l e do all n i c k e l - p r o c e s s e s share the p r o p e r t i e s of the nickel, place. and This t h o s e p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be s t o r e d leads to a need for a hierarchical

representation

w h e r e data can be r e p r e s e n t e d d e p e n d i n g on its g e n e r a l i t y . General v i e w s on h a r d w a r e also b e l o n g s to the k n o w l e d g e In this case it is i m p o r t a n t that the d e s i g n e r has e a s y and to the e x p e r t s y s t e m and to the knowledge, b a s e and a fast w o r k s t a t i o n or t e r m i n a l and are a level. fast

access

central therefore

knowledge essential.

F u n c t i o n level At this level proper representation methods and inference

m e t h o d s are selected. The n e e d for h i e r a r c h i c a l both semantic nets where r e p r e s e n t a t i o n can be a c c o m p l i s h e d by Frames are the most both advanced detailed

and frames.

representation

it is p o s s i b l e to r e p r e s e n t for an object.

i n f o r m a t i o n and p r o c e d u r e s

Procedural

k n o w l e d g e for p r o c e s s s e l e c t i o n can be

handled

by of This be

p r o d u c t i o n rules, both. can can be e x p r e s s e d be general

o b j e c t o r i e n t e d p r o g r a m m i n g or a c o m b i n a t i o n in the form IF < c o n d i t i o n > T H E N knowledge about m a n y p r o c e s s e s <action>. or it can

P r o d u c t i o n rules are p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e to k n o w l e d g e that

k n o w l e d g e s p e c i f i c to a c e r t a i n process. ming can be that

Object oriented some a

programtype of

u s e d w e r e there is a need for u s i n g

function

l o g i c a l l y b e l o n g s to some o b j e c t e.g.

function

46 that use rent d i s p l a y s special extra i n f o r m a t i o n about a process. is to p l a c e d i f f e r e n t functions w i t h the same name at objects, and w h e n the function is called, on the object. For it will a Another diffebehave display be by

differently function made

depending

example,

that d i s p l a y s r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n for a p r o c e s s can but they are all invoked

i n d i v i d u a l l y for each process,

the call " d i s p l a y p r o c e s s name".

For

s u b s y s t e m one w h e r e the user should be able to input forward r e a s o n i n g seems like a

many

d i f f e r e n t requirements, solution.

reasonable if it

A f t e r each input from the u s e r the s y s t e m checks

has any rules w h e r e the c o n d i t i o n part m a t c h e s the input. trigger Forward different other rules, and e v e n t u a l l y select a possible of

This can process. trying be

reasoning input

gives the d e s i g n e r the p o s s i b i l i t y to see w h a t happens, and can in o t h e r

words

u s e d iteratively.

[
Designer

CADSystem
[Interactive modeling

~PProduct~ I database I l =Ae, ]

/ , /
Expert Consulting

Manufacturing

database

System

i .

Process ca.p.abilities Hroce@$aata Production facilities Tr~Suction cost

Search for solutions Examination of each. ~..o.lution Show p.rocess capabilities ~ma =imitations Design rules .Cos.tle,s.ti~ation ~vzulapl~y E-xpenence , , ~oml:~nystanoaras

Manufacturing knowledge base

General knowledge (decision rules, standards Ph.ysic.s, L;nemlstry, etc.)
'

~.
Fig. 6. A m o d e l for a c o n s u l t i n g s y s t e m for p r o c e s s selection.

In s u b s y s t e m two w h e r e the d e s i g n e r is i n t e r e s t e d in w h e t h e r certain process can be used, b a c k w a r d chaining may be

more

47 suitable. set up. condition A goal, e.g. "check if process #x can be used" Where part the consequent part of a may rule is put rise questions, that is to the can be the user.

matched,

Subsystem two asks the questions it needs to determine whether the process can be used or not. Proqram level At this level relevant computer structures and languages are

selected. The function level demands include frame for for

representation programming handle

declarative knowledge, rules and object-oriented

procedural knowledge and an inference engine that can

both forward and backward reasoning. It would be convenient if the developing system has an open architecture where it is possible to modify and include using user defined low level programming. the expert system development environments (ESDE) can Only

fulfill

those demands.

ESOP

- AN

EXPERT

SYSTEM

FOR

SELECTION

OF

SURFACE

TREATMENT

PROCESSES.

At ped. of used

the The

Technical University of Denmark an expert of surface treatment processes ESOP project is a joint program with a

system major

for

selection company,

(ESOP) is being

develoDanish Agency ESOP is

and the work is partly sponsored by The National

Industry and Trade in Denmark. In the development of a general expert system development environment

Goldworks RAM

(TM) (ref.13). ESOP works on personal computers with extended and disk memory.

In ESOP the iterative process selection is handled through steps like in the previous described model. First a limit a the number of screen processes to enter few

two

general further. the how the he

questions Through

examine and

working

the user can

change

requirements to the process and immediately see the result as many processes wants that to now match the profile set up. When

designer

examine one of these

processes

further,

selects it and hereby activates a step 2, where the expert in more detail asks questions to find out if the process

system can be

used.

48 Declarative are r e p r e s e n t e d stance of a k n o w l e d g e about processes, frame. A frame can both m a t e r i a l s and data products is an slots For inand

in a frame h i e r a r c h M w h e r e each p r o c e s s inherit

functions process frame ledge.

from other frames h i g h e r in the hierarchy. frame and m a t e r i a l k n o w l e d g e from a m a t e r i a l

example from a The know-

does a s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s inherit p r o c e s s s p e c i f i c k n o w l e d g e s t r u c t u r e offers a c o n v e n i e n t way of o r g a n i z i n g the

frame.

P r o c e d u r a l k n o w l e d g e includes rules about a d v a n t a g e s and disadv a n t a g e s for a process, special r e l a t i o n s that c a n n o t be e x p r e s s e d and

as d e c l a r a t i v e k n o w l e d g e and general k n o w l e d g e about p h y s i c a l chemical relations.

Both rules and object o r i e n t e d p r o g r a m m i n g are Rules are u s e d for and for of the

u s e d to e x p r e s s this p r o c e d u r a l knowledge. general k n o w l e d g e tional knowledge

(e.g. k n o w l e d g e about corrosion) of a s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s or a group

condi-

processes a

(e.g. if acid e n v i r o n m e n t and sharp edges t h e n p o o r a d h e s i o n is risk.). for a O b j e c t o r i e n t e d p r o g r a m m i n g is u s e d w h e r e there is a function in the d e c l a r a t i v e k n o w l e d g e (the frames).

need An

example is b o o k k e e p i n g functions that counts and u p d a t e s tion a b o u t the results that are found. ESOP knowledge and database knowledge is d e s i g n e d to help the d e s i g n e r but since m u c h can be u s e d by o t h e r c o m p a n y control departments) III) (DBASE is incorporated. functions to the Much of an i n t e r f a c e a

informa-

of

the

(manufacturing relational declarative from the

quality

can be stored in this d a t a b a s e and t h e n

accessed

o t h e r programs. designers another ideas. to

It is the basic idea that E S O P can be u s e d by d e t e r m i n e w h a t surface t r e a t m e n t s he is to supply a tool t h a t can can

use, but new good

purpose

trigger

CONCLUSION

The

paper

d e s c r i b e s the i m p o r t a n c e of p r o c e s s

selection

and An the can

underlines efficient competitive assist

it as a m e a n of i n t e g r a t i n g d e s i g n and production. selection situation of the right p r o c e s s e s for the company. are vital to that

Expert systems

the d e s i g n e r in s e l e c t i n g the right m a n u f a c t u r i n g

process

do also p r e s e n t new p o s s i b i l i t i e s

for the d e s i g n e r t h a t he may not

49 have thought of. A method is processes for developing is introduced. advanced for systems selection for of

process

selection

described

and a system

surface treatment
REFERENCES

2 3 4 5

6 7 8

9 I0 ii 12

13

Lenau T., Alting L. XPLAN - An expert process planning system. The Second International Expert Systems Conference, London, UK, Sept/Oct. 1986. Lenau T., Alting L. Tutorial on Computer Aided Process Planning The Autofact Conference, Detroit, Michigan, USA, Nov. 1986. Alting L. Integration of Engineering Function/disciplines in CIM. CIRP General Assembly, August 1986, Israel. Chang T.C., Wysk R.A. An Introduction to automated process planning systems, Prentice-Hall, 1985. Zucherman, M.I. A knowledge base development for producibility analysis in mechanical design, CIRP Seminar on Computer Aided Process Planing, Pensylvania State University, PA, USA, June 1987. Alting L. Manufacturing Engineering Processes, Marcell Dekker Inc. New York, USA, 1982. Tong, Christopher Toward an engineering science of knowledge-based design. Artificial Intelligence in Engineering, 1987, Vol.2, No.3. Kim, S.H. Managing the development of advanced knowledge-based systems, CIRP Seminar on Computer Aided Process Planing, Pensylvania State University, PA, USA, June 1987. Nilsson, Nils J. Principles of Artificial Intelligence, Springer-Verlag, 1982. Hayes-Roth F. et al. Building Expert Systems, Addison-Westley Publishing Company, Inc., 1983. Waterman, Donald A. Aguide to expert systems, Addison-westley Publishing Company Inc., 1986. Allen D.K., Computer aided process planning: Software Tools, Integrated and Intelligent Manufacturing, Anaheim, CA, USA, 1986. Goldworks (TM) Goldhill Computers Inc., 163 Harward Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.