In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal flow of electric current.

For example a short circuit is a fault in which current flow bypasses the normal load. An open circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. Inthree phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", current flows into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a fault can be calculated for power systems. In power systems, protective devices detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakersand other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure. In a polyphase system, a fault may affect all phases equally which is a "symmetrical fault". If only some phases are affected, the resulting "asymmetrical fault" becomes more complicated to analyse due to the simplifying assumption of equal current magnitude in all phases being no longer applicable. The analysis of this type of fault is often simplified by using methods such as symmetrical components.

Transient fault
A transient fault is a fault that is no longer present if power is disconnected for a short time. Many faults in overhead powerlines are transient in nature. At the occurrence of a fault power system protectionoperates to isolate area of the fault. A transient fault will then clear and the powerline can be returned to service. Typical examples of transient faults include:
   

momentary tree contact bird or other animal contact lightning strike conductor clash

In electricity transmission and distribution systems an automatic reclose function is commonly used on overhead lines to attempt to restore power in the event of a transient fault. This functionality is not as common on underground systems as faults there are typically of a persistent nature. Transient faults may still cause damage both at the site of the original fault or elsewhere in the network as fault current is generated.

[edit]Persistent

fault

A persistent fault does not disappear when power is disconnected. Faults in underground power cables are often persistent. Underground power lines are not affected by trees or lightning, so faults, when they occur, are probably due to damage. In such cases, if the line is reconnected, it is likely to be only damaged further. [edit]Symmetric

fault

A symmetric, symmetrical or balanced fault affects each of the three-phases equally. In transmission line faults, roughly 5% are symmetric[citation needed]. This is in contrast to an asymmetric fault, where the three phases are not affected equally. In practice, most faults in power systems are unbalanced. With this in mind, symmetric faults can be viewed as somewhat of an abstraction; however, as asymmetric faults are difficult to analyze, analysis of asymmetric faults is built up from a thorough understanding of symmetric faults. [edit]Asymetric

fault

An asymmetric or unbalanced fault does not affect each of the three phases equally. Common types of asymmetric faults, and their causes:


line-to-line - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines come into physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator. line-to-ground - a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by physical contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage double line-to-ground - two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also commonly due to storm damage

[edit]Analysis Symmetric faults can be analyzed via the same methods as any other phenomena in power systems, and in fact manysoftware tools exist to accomplish this type of analysis automatically (see power flow study). However, there is another method which is as accurate and is usually more instructive.

First, some simplifying assumptions are made. It is assumed that all electrical generators in the system are in phase, and operating at the nominal voltage of the system. Electric motors can also be considered to be generators, because when a fault occurs, they usually supply rather than draw power. The voltages and currents are then calculated for thisbase case. Next, the location of the fault is considered to be supplied with a negative voltage source, equal to the voltage at that location in the base case, while all other sources are set to zero. This method makes use of the principle ofsuperposition. To obtain a more accurate result, these calculations should be performed separately for three separate time ranges:
  

subtransient is first, and is associated with the largest currents transient comes between subtransient and steady-state steady-state occurs after all the transients have had time to settle

An asymmetric fault breaks the underlying assumptions used in three phase power, namely that the load is balanced on all three phases. Consequently, it is impossible to directly use tools such as the one-line diagram, where only one phase is considered. However, due to the linearity of power systems, it is usual to consider the resulting voltages and currentsas a superposition of symmetrical components, to which three phase analysis can be applied. In the method of symmetric components, the power system is seen as a superposition of three components:


a positive-sequence component, in which the phases are in the same order as the original system, i.e., a-b-c a negative-sequence component, in which the phases are in the opposite order as the original system, i.e., a-c-b a zero-sequence component, which is not truly a three phase system, but instead all three phases are in phase with each other.

To determine the currents resulting from an asymmetrical fault, one must first know the per-unit zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence impedances of the transmission lines, generators, and transformers involved. Three separate circuits are then constructed using these impedances. The individual circuits are then connected together in a particular arrangement that depends upon the type

of fault being studied (this can be found in most power systems textbooks). Once the sequence circuits are properly connected, the network can then be analyzed using classical circuit analysis techniques. The solution results in voltages and currents that exist as symmetrical components; these must be transformed back into phase values by using the A matrix. Analysis of the prospective short-circuit current is required for selection of protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers. If a circuit is to be properly protected, the fault current must be high enough to operate the protective device within as short a time as possible; also the protective device must be able to withstand the fault current and extinguish any resulting arcs without itself being destroyed or sustaining the arc for any significant length of time. The magnitude of fault currents differ widely depending on the type of earthing system used, the installation's supply type and earthing system, and its proximity to the supply. For example, for a domestic UK 230 V, 60 A TN-S or USA 120 V/240 V supply, fault currents may be a few thousand amperes. Large lowvoltage networks with multiple sources may have fault levels of 300,000 amperes. A high-resistance-grounded system may restrict line to ground fault current to only 5 amperes. Prior to selecting protective devices, prospective fault current must be measured reliably at the origin of the installation and at the furthest point of each circuit, and this information applied properly to the application of the circuits. [edit]Detecting

and locating faults

Locating faults in a cable system can be done either with the circuit deenergized, or in some cases, with the circuit under power. Fault location techniques can be broadly divided into terminal methods, which use voltages and currents measured at the ends of the cable, and tracer methods, which require inspection along the length of the cable. Terminal methods can be used to locate the general area of the fault, to expedite tracing on a long or buried cable.[1] In very simple wiring systems, the fault location is often found through visual inspection of the wires. In complex wiring systems (e.g. aircraft wiring) where the electrical wires may be hidden behind cabinets and extended for miles, wiring faults are located with a Time-domain reflectometer.[2] The time domain

reflectometer sends a pulse down the wire and then analyzes the returning reflected pulse to identify faults within the electrical wire. In historic submarine telegraph cables, sensitive galvanometers were used to measure fault currents; by testing at both ends of a faulted cable, the fault location could be isolated to within a few miles, which allowed the cable to be grappled up and repaired. The Murray loop and the Varley loop were two types of connections for locating faults in cables Sometimes an insulation fault in a power cable will not show up at lower voltages. A "thumper" test set applies a high-energy, high-voltage pulse to the cable. Fault location is done by listening for the sound of the discharge at the fault. While this test contributes to damage at the cable site, it is practical because the faulted location would have to be re-insulated when found in any case.[3] In a high resistance grounded distribution system, a feeder may develop a fault to ground but the system continues in operation. The faulted, but energized, feeder can be found with a ring-type current transformer collecting all the phase wires of the circuit; only the circuit containing a fault to ground will show a net unbalanced current. To make the ground fault current easier to detect, the grounding resistor of the system may be switched between two values so that the fault current pulses. A time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is an electronic instrument used to characterize and locate faults in metallic cables (for example, twisted wire pairs, coaxial cables).[1] It can also be used to locate discontinuities in a connector, printed circuit board, or any other electrical path. The equivalent device for optical fiber is an optical time-domain reflectometer.

Description
A TDR transmits a short rise time pulse along the conductor. If the conductor is of a uniform impedance and is properlyterminated, the entire transmitted pulse will be absorbed in the far-end termination and no signal will be reflected toward the TDR. Any impedance discontinuities will cause some of the incident signal to be sent back towards the source. This is similar in principle to radar.

Increases in the impedance create a reflection that reinforces the original pulse whilst decreases in the impedance create a reflection that opposes the original pulse. The resulting reflected pulse that is measured at the output/input to the TDR is displayed or plotted as a function of time and, because the speed of signal propagation is almost constant for a given transmission medium, can be read as a function of cable length. Because of this sensitivity to impedance variations, a TDR may be used to verify cable impedance characteristics,splice and connector locations and associated losses, and estimate cable lengths. [edit]Example

Traces

These traces were produced by the Time Domain Reflectometer made from common lab equipment connected to approximately 100 feet of 50 ohm coaxial cable. The propagation velocity of this cable is approximately 66% of the speed of light in a vacuum.

Simple TDR made from lab equipment

Simple TDR made from lab equipment

TDR trace of a transmission line with an open termination.

TDR trace of a transmission line with a short circuit termination.

TDR trace of a transmission line with a 1nF capacitor termination.

TDR trace of a transmission line terminated on an TDR trace of a transmission line with an almost ideal termination. oscilloscope high impedance input. The blue trace is the pulse as seen at the far end. It is offset so that the baseline of each channel is visible.

[edit]Explanation Consider the case where the far end of the cable is shorted (that is, it is terminated into zero ohms impedance). When the rising edge of the pulse is launched down the cable, the voltage at the launching point "steps up" to a given value instantly and the pulse begins propagating down the cable towards the short. When the pulse hits the short, no energy is absorbed at the far end. Instead, an opposing pulse reflects back from the short towards the launching end. It is only when this opposing reflection finally reaches the launch point that the voltage at this launching point abruptly drops back to zero, signaling the fact that there is a short at the end of the cable. That is, the TDR had no indication that there is a short at the end of the cable until its emitted pulse can travel down the cable at roughly the speed of light and the echo can return back up the cable at the same speed. It is only after this round-trip delay that the short can be perceived by the TDR. Assuming that one knows the signal propagation speed in the particular cable-under-test, then in this way, the distance to the short can be measured. A similar effect occurs if the far end of the cable is an open circuit (terminated into an infinite impedance). In this case, though, the reflection from the far end is

polarized identically with the original pulse and adds to it rather than cancelling it out. So after a round-trip delay, the voltage at the TDR abruptly jumps to twice the originally-applied voltage. Note that a theoretical perfect termination at the far end of the cable would entirely absorb the applied pulse without causing any reflection. In this case, it would be impossible to determine the actual length of the cable. Luckily, perfect terminations are very rare and some small reflection is nearly always caused. The magnitude of the reflection is referred to as the reflection coefficient or . The coefficient ranges from 1 (open circuit) to -1 (short circuit). The value of zero means that there is no reflection. The reflection coefficient is calculated as follows:

Where Zo is defined as the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium and Zt is the impedance of the termination at the far end of the transmission line. Any discontinuity can be viewed as a termination impedance and substituted as Zt. This includes abrupt changes in the characteristic impedance. As an example, a trace width on a printed circuit board doubled at its midsection would constitute a discontinuity. Some of the energy will be reflected back to the driving source; the remaining energy will be transmitted. This is also known as a scattering junction. [edit]Usage Time domain reflectometers are commonly used for in-place testing of very long cable runs, where it is impractical to dig up or remove what may be a kilometerslong cable. They are indispensable for preventive maintenance oftelecommunication lines, as they can reveal growing resistance levels on joints and connectors as they corrode, and increasing insulation leakage as it degrades and absorbs moisture long before either leads to catastrophic failures. Using a TDR, it is possible to pinpoint a fault to within centimetres. TDRs are also very useful tools for technical surveillance counter-measures, where they help determine the existence and location of wire taps. The slight

change in line impedance caused by the introduction of a tap or splice will show up on the screen of a TDR when connected to a phone line. TDR equipment is also an essential tool in the failure analysis of modern highfrequency printed circuit boards whose signal traces are carefully crafted to emulate transmission lines. By observing reflections, any unsoldered pins of a ball grid array device can be detected. Additionally, short circuited pins can also be detected in a similar fashion. The TDR principle is used in industrial settings, in situations as diverse as the testing of integrated circuit packages to measuring liquid levels. In the former, the time domain reflectometer is used to isolate failing sites in the same. The latter is primarily limited to the process industry. [edit]TDR

in level measurement

In a TDR-based level measurement device, a low-energy electromagnetic impulse generated by the sensors circuitry is propagated along a thin wave guide (also referred to as a probe) usually a metal rod or a steel cable. When this impulse hits the surface of the medium to be measured, part of the impulse energy is reflected back up the probe to the circuitry which then calculates the fluid level from the time difference between the impulse sent and the impulse reflected (in nanoseconds). The sensors can output the analyzed level as a continuous analog signal or switch output signals. In TDR technology, the impulse velocity is primarily affected by the permittivity of the medium through which the pulse propagates, which can vary greatly by the moisture content and temperature of the medium. In most cases, this can be corrected for without undue difficulty. However, in complex environments, such as in boiling and/or high temperature environments, this can be a significant signal processing dilemma. In particular, determining the froth(foam) height and true collapsed liquid level in a frothy / boiling medium can be very difficult. [edit]TDR

used in Anchor Cables in Dams

The Dam Safety Interest Group of CEA Technologies, Inc. (CEATI), a consortium of electrical power organizations, has applied Spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry to identify potential faults in concrete dam anchor cables. The key benefit of Time Domain reflectometry over other testing methods is the nondestructive method of these tests.

[edit]TDR

used in the earth and agricultural sciences

TDR is used to determine moisture content in soil and porous media, where over the last two decades substantial advances have been made; including in soils, grains and food stuffs, and in sediments. The key to TDRs success is its ability to accurately determine the permittivity (dielectric constant) of a material from wave propagation, and the fact that there is a strong relationship between the permittivity of a material and its water content, as demonstrated in the pioneering works of Hoekstra and Delaney (1974) and Topp et al. (1980). Recent reviews and reference work on the subject include, Topp and Reynolds (1998), Noborio (2001), Pettinellia et al. (2002), Topp and Ferre (2002) and Robinson et al. (2003). The TDR method is a transmission line technique, and determines an apparent TDR permittivity (Ka) from the travel time of an electromagnetic wave that propagates along a transmission line, usually two or more parallel metal rods embedded in a soil or sediment. TDR probes are usually between 10 and 30 cm in length and connected to the TDR via a coaxial cable. [edit]TDR

in geotechnical usage

Time domain reflectometry has also been utilized to monitor slope movement in a variety of geotechnical settings including highway cuts, rail beds, and open pit mines (Dowding & O'Connor, 1984, 2000a, 2000b; Kane & Beck, 1999). In stability monitoring applications using TDR, a coaxial cable is installed in a vertical borehole passing through the region of concern. The electrical impedance at any point along a coaxial cable changes with deformation of the insulator between the conductors. A brittle grout surrounds the cable to translate earth movement into an abrupt cable deformation that shows up as a detectable peak in the reflectance trace. Until recently, the technique was relatively insensitive to small slope movements and could not be automated because it relied on human detection of changes in the reflectance trace over time. Farrington and Sargand (2004) developed a simple signal processing technique using numerical derivatives to extract reliable indications of slope movement from the TDR data much earlier than by conventional interpretation. [edit]TDR

in semiconductor device analysis

Time domain reflectometry is used in semiconductor failure analysis as a nondestructive method for the location of defects in semiconductor device packages.

The TDR provides an electrical signature of individual conductive traces in the device package, and is useful for determining the location of opens and shorts. [edit]TDR

in aviation wiring maintenance

Time domain reflectometry, specifically spread spectrum time domain reflectometry is used for aviation wiring for both preventative maintenance and intermittent fault location.[2] The spread spectrum time domain reflectometry has the advantage of precisely locating the fault location within thousands of miles of aviation wiring. Additionally, this technology is being considering for live aviation monitoring as the spread spectrum reflectometry works on a live wire. Utah State conducted research[3] on use of time domain reflectometry for identifying chafing of electrical wires in aircraft. This chafing is known to cause electrical failures on aircraft so the ability to identify potential problems prior to a failure that has life-ending implications.

In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable designed to carry alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that its wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with theirantennas, distributing cable television signals, and computer network connections. Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency AC, such as mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second (cycling 50 to 60 times per second). However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range or higher, which reverse direction millions to billions of times per second, because the energy tends to radiate off the cable as radio waves, causing power losses. Radio frequency currents also tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors, and travel back down the cable toward the source. These reflections act as bottlenecks, preventing the power from reaching the destination. Transmission lines use specialized construction such as precise conductor dimensions and spacing, and impedance matching, to carry electromagnetic signals with minimal reflections and power losses. Types of transmission line include ladder line, coaxial cable, dielectric slabs,stripline, optical fiber, and waveguides. The higher the frequency, the

shorter are the waves in a transmission medium. Transmission lines must be used when the frequency is high enough that the wavelength of the waves begins to approach the length of the cable used. To conduct energy at frequencies above the radio range, such as millimeter waves, infrared, and light, the waves become much smaller than the dimensions of the structures used to guide them, so transmission line techniques become inadequate and the methods of optics are used. The theory of sound wave propagation is very similar mathematically to that of electromagnetic waves, so techniques from transmission line theory are also used to build structures to conduct acoustic waves; and these are also called transmission lines.

Transient fault
A transient fault is a fault that is no longer present if power is disconnected for a short time. Many faults in overhead powerlines are transient in nature. At the occurrence of a fault power system protectionoperates to isolate area of the fault. A transient fault will then clear and the powerline can be returned to service. Typical examples of transient faults include:
   

momentary tree contact bird or other animal contact lightning strike conductor clash

In electricity transmission and distribution systems an automatic reclose function is commonly used on overhead lines to attempt to restore power in the event of a transient fault. This functionality is not as common on underground systems as faults there are typically of a persistent nature. Transient faults may still cause damage both at the site of the original fault or elsewhere in the network as fault current is generated. [edit]Persistent

fault

A persistent fault does not disappear when power is disconnected. Faults in underground power cables are often persistent. Underground power lines are not affected by trees or lightning, so faults, when they occur, are probably due to damage. In such cases, if the line is reconnected, it is likely to be only damaged further. [edit]Symmetric

fault

A symmetric, symmetrical or balanced fault affects each of the three-phases equally. In transmission line faults, roughly 5% are symmetric[citation needed]. This is in contrast to an asymmetric fault, where the three phases are not affected equally. In practice, most faults in power systems are unbalanced. With this in mind, symmetric faults can be viewed as somewhat of an abstraction; however, as asymmetric faults are difficult to analyze, analysis of asymmetric faults is built up from a thorough understanding of symmetric faults. [edit]Asymetric

fault

An asymmetric or unbalanced fault does not affect each of the three phases equally. Common types of asymmetric faults, and their causes:


line-to-line - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines come into physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator. line-to-ground - a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by physical contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage double line-to-ground - two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also commonly due to storm damage

[edit]Analysis Symmetric faults can be analyzed via the same methods as any other phenomena in power systems, and in fact manysoftware tools exist to accomplish this type of analysis automatically (see power flow study). However, there is another method which is as accurate and is usually more instructive. First, some simplifying assumptions are made. It is assumed that all electrical generators in the system are in phase, and operating at the nominal voltage of

the system. Electric motors can also be considered to be generators, because when a fault occurs, they usually supply rather than draw power. The voltages and currents are then calculated for thisbase case. Next, the location of the fault is considered to be supplied with a negative voltage source, equal to the voltage at that location in the base case, while all other sources are set to zero. This method makes use of the principle ofsuperposition. To obtain a more accurate result, these calculations should be performed separately for three separate time ranges:
  

subtransient is first, and is associated with the largest currents transient comes between subtransient and steady-state steady-state occurs after all the transients have had time to settle

An asymmetric fault breaks the underlying assumptions used in three phase power, namely that the load is balanced on all three phases. Consequently, it is impossible to directly use tools such as the one-line diagram, where only one phase is considered. However, due to the linearity of power systems, it is usual to consider the resulting voltages and currentsas a superposition of symmetrical components, to which three phase analysis can be applied. In the method of symmetric components, the power system is seen as a superposition of three components:


a positive-sequence component, in which the phases are in the same order as the original system, i.e., a-b-c a negative-sequence component, in which the phases are in the opposite order as the original system, i.e., a-c-b a zero-sequence component, which is not truly a three phase system, but instead all three phases are in phase with each other.

To determine the currents resulting from an asymmetrical fault, one must first know the per-unit zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence impedances of the transmission lines, generators, and transformers involved. Three separate circuits are then constructed using these impedances. The individual circuits are then connected together in a particular arrangement that depends upon the type of fault being studied (this can be found in most power systems textbooks). Once the sequence circuits are properly connected, the network can then be analyzed

using classical circuit analysis techniques. The solution results in voltages and currents that exist as symmetrical components; these must be transformed back into phase values by using the A matrix. Analysis of the prospective short-circuit current is required for selection of protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers. If a circuit is to be properly protected, the fault current must be high enough to operate the protective device within as short a time as possible; also the protective device must be able to withstand the fault current and extinguish any resulting arcs without itself being destroyed or sustaining the arc for any significant length of time. The magnitude of fault currents differ widely depending on the type of earthing system used, the installation's supply type and earthing system, and its proximity to the supply. For example, for a domestic UK 230 V, 60 A TN-S or USA 120 V/240 V supply, fault currents may be a few thousand amperes. Large lowvoltage networks with multiple sources may have fault levels of 300,000 amperes. A high-resistance-grounded system may restrict line to ground fault current to only 5 amperes. Prior to selecting protective devices, prospective fault current must be measured reliably at the origin of the installation and at the furthest point of each circuit, and this information applied properly to the application of the circuits. [edit]Detecting

and locating faults

Locating faults in a cable system can be done either with the circuit deenergized, or in some cases, with the circuit under power. Fault location techniques can be broadly divided into terminal methods, which use voltages and currents measured at the ends of the cable, and tracer methods, which require inspection along the length of the cable. Terminal methods can be used to locate the general area of the fault, to expedite tracing on a long or buried cable.[1] In very simple wiring systems, the fault location is often found through visual inspection of the wires. In complex wiring systems (e.g. aircraft wiring) where the electrical wires may be hidden behind cabinets and extended for miles, wiring faults are located with a Time-domain reflectometer.[2] The time domain reflectometer sends a pulse down the wire and then analyzes the returning reflected pulse to identify faults within the electrical wire.

In historic submarine telegraph cables, sensitive galvanometers were used to measure fault currents; by testing at both ends of a faulted cable, the fault location could be isolated to within a few miles, which allowed the cable to be grappled up and repaired. The Murray loop and the Varley loop were two types of connections for locating faults in cables Sometimes an insulation fault in a power cable will not show up at lower voltages. A "thumper" test set applies a high-energy, high-voltage pulse to the cable. Fault location is done by listening for the sound of the discharge at the fault. While this test contributes to damage at the cable site, it is practical because the faulted location would have to be re-insulated when found in any case.[3] In a high resistance grounded distribution system, a feeder may develop a fault to ground but the system continues in operation. The faulted, but energized, feeder can be found with a ring-type current transformer collecting all the phase wires of the circuit; only the circuit containing a fault to ground will show a net unbalanced current. To make the ground fault current easier to detect, the grounding resistor of the system may be switched between two values so that the fault current pulses. [edit]Batteries The prospective fault current of larger batteries, such as deep-cycle batteries used in stand-alone power systems, is often given by the manufacturer. In Australia, when this information is not given, the prospective fault current in amperes "should be considered to be 6 times the nominal battery capacity at the C120 Ah rate," according to AS 4086 part 2 (Appendix H).