SCE3103 Exploring Materials

TOPIC 1

NATURAL MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED MATERIALS

Synopsis Some materials occur naturally, like wood, rubber, rock, cotton, silk and wool while others are produced by humans from natural materials, for example glass, plastic and ceramics. These materials have different properties which determine their usage. In this topic, you will be introduced to natural materials and manufactured materials, and their uses. You will also compare and contrast their properties and relate these properties to everyday uses of materials. Learning Outcomes 1. Identify natural and processed materials 2. State the properties of natural materials 3. State the properties of manufactured materials 4. Compare and contrast the properties of natural materials and manufactured materials 5. Explain the uses of natural and manufactured materials 6. Relate the uses of materials to their properties

Overview

Natural and manufactured materials

Properties of natural materials

Properties of manufactured materials

Compare and contrast natural materials and manufactured materials

The uses of natural materials and manufactured materials

Figure 1.1 Overview of content CONTENT

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1.1 Natural Materials A natural material is any substance that is produced by natural processes. The main sources of natural material are derived from plants, animals, or the ground. Minerals and the metals that can be extracted are also considered as natural materials. Some of the properties of natural materials are:

It is usually valuable It is pure and natural It can easily decompose and degrade It is derived from plants, animals, or from the ground

Figure 1.2 Natural materials (Source: http://images.google.com) Some examples of natural materials are:

Soil Rubber Petroleum (Fuel) Inorganic materials (stone) Composites (clay, porcelain) Wood (rattan, bamboo, bark ) Metal (copper, bronze, iron, gold, silver) Natural fibers (wool, silk, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, kapok)

There are many uses of natural materials. They are chosen to make certain objects because of their properties. Wood, for example is used to make furniture, frame of doors. It is used to make furniture because its moderate hardness, elasticity and toughness make it possible to shape them by cutting with steel tools such as saws, chisels and planes. When nails or screws are driven into wood, they are gripped very securely and the wood does not usually split open. Wood is a very poor thermal conductor, so it helps to conserve energy when used in doors and window frames. Metals can be used in making structures for building. They are shiny, hard and strong materials. Petroleum can be used in manufacturing detergent and plastic. Natural fibers such as cotton, silk and wool are widely used in making clothes because they are strong, durable and have a smooth and soft texture.

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Surf the Internet (1 hour)

Access the internet to gather information on other uses of natural materials. Relate their uses to their properties and discuss why these materials are used for making the objects.

1.2 Manufactured Materials Manufactured materials are made by processes which result in raw materials being transformed into different kinds of substances through chemical processes. It is necessary to distinguish carefully between the materials or substances of which an object is made of. For example: stone is a natural material and a stone pebble on a beach is a natural object because it is not shaped by human activity. A cut stone building-block or a roofing slate is a manufactured object although both are made of natural materials. Types of manufactured materials include alloys, plastics, composite materials, industrial chemicals, soaps and detergents.

Figure 1.3 Manufactured materials (Source: http://google.images.com) Some of the properties of manufactured materials are: Durable Light weight High Strength Design for flexibility Doesnt decompose and degrade easily It is usually made from several natural materials Can be created by physical and chemical processes

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When we make something, we have to choose materials which have the right properties. Figure 1.4 compares the everyday uses of manufactured materials on the basis of their properties. Manufactured Materials Examples Pewter Alloys Stainless steel Styrenebutadiene rubber nylon Composition of Natural materials 97% tin and 3% antimony 74% iron, 18% chromium, 8% nickel Styrene, butadiene Properties Does not corrode, shiny, attractive Does not rust, hard, strong Can be moulded under heat and pressure, strong and light strong, cheap, extremely durable Easy to mould and shape, transparent, low melting point Good insulator of electricity and heat, inert to chemicals, hard and strong but brittle Colourless, pungent, very soluble in water, does not burn in air Strong acid, non-volatile, corrosive Cleaning agent in soft water Cleaning agent in soft and hard water

Plastics

Composite materials

Industrial chemicals

Soaps and detergents

Diamine, dicarboxylic acid Soda lime glass Sand(silicon for bottles dioxide) ceramics Clay (aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide, sand, feldspar) Ammonia Nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas Sulphuric acid Sulphur, oxygen, water Soap Animal fats and vegetable oils Detergent petroleum

Figure 1.4 Uses of manufactured materials and their properties

Thinking (2 hours)

Based on your study, construct a graphic organiser to compare and contrast between properties of natural and manufactured materials.

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Discussion ( 2 hours)

Observe the pictures below carefully and state the natural materials and the manufactured materials needed to make them. Suggest other possible materials that could be used and state whether these items are natural or manufactured materials.

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_material (natural materials) http: // www.creamicindustry.com/CDA/Articles ( uses of ceramics) www.schoolsliason.org.uk/woodgate/materials/materials0.1.htm (natural and manufactured materials) www.find-health-articles.com/msh-manufactured-materials (manufactured materials)

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TOPIC 13

NATURAL MATERIALS- RUBBER

Synopsis There are many things around you that are made from rubber. In this topic, you will be learning about the composition of rubber, how it is processed, its properties and its uses in our daily lives. Learning Outcomes

1.

State the composition of rubber 2. Explain the processing of rubber 3. State the properties of rubber 4. State the uses of rubber in our daily life Overview

RUBBER

Composition of rubber

Processing of rubber

Properties of rubber

Uses of rubber in our daily life

Figure 13.1 Overview of content Content Take a rubber band and stretch it. What do you observe? Release the rubber band. What do you observe? The rubber band stretches when pulled and when the force is released it returns to its original length or shape. The rubber band is made from rubber, which is a type of polymer called elastomer. As an elastomer, the rubber band is different from other solid materials in that it can be stretched to more than four times its original length and when it is released it will readily return to its original length. This property is called elasticity.

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13.1

Composition of rubber

Natural rubber is a addition polymer of isoprene, C5H8. The IUPAC name for isoprene is 2-methylbut-1,3-diene. Rubber, for example, is very elastic and is made from isoprene monomers.

In naturally occurring rubber, the chain extensions are on the same side of the double bond. This form is called poly-cis-isoprene, with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000. Because rotation about the carbon-carbon double bond does nor readily occur, the orientation of the groups bound to the carbons is rigid. This makes rubber products easily oxidized by air, heat and mechanical movements like bending. The oxidized rubber cracks and peels off easily. Polyisoprene is also created synthetically, producing what is sometimes referred to as "synthetic natural rubber".Synthetic rubber is produced from the polymerisation of 2chlorobuta-1,3-diene. n CH2=CH-C=CH2 Cl 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene ~(CH2-CH=C-CH2) ~ Cl neoprene

The product is known as neoprene. It is resistant to chemicals and used to make hose for petrol and containers for corrosive chemicals. Another synthetic rubber is styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), a copolymer between phenylethene (30%) and 1,3-butadiene (70%). CH2=CH-CH=CH2 + CH2=CH CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH

1,3-butadiene

phenylethene

styrene-butadiene rubber

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13.2

Processing of rubber

Rubber is a natural polymer, formed from a liquid resin or latex derived from the inner bark of the Hevea brasiliensis tree. Latex or natural rubber is made from the sap of the wild rubber tree. The bark of the tree is 'tapped', this means cutting small V shape slits into the bark, so that the sticky, white sap, known as latex, drips out and is caught in collecting cups tied to the tree truck. Figure 13.2 shows the tapping of rubber trees.

Rubber trees

Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree Figure 13.2 Tapping of rubber trees (Source: http://images.google.com)

Knives used for tapping rubber

Latex consists of 35% rubber particles and 65% water. Every rubber particle contains rubber molecules which are wrapped by a layer of negatively charged protein membrane. It is sometimes necessary to add a few drops of ammonia solution to the cup, or to the transport tank, to prevent pre-coagulation of the latex before it reaches the factory. It can also be left in the cup to coagulate naturally (bacteria action which produces acid) into cup lump for collection before the next tapping, although this will produce a lower grade of product. The collected latex is then brought to a collection centre and poured into a big tank. The latex is then filtered to remove impurities and then passed through centrifugal machines to remove most of the water. Rubber is obtained when methanoic or ethanoic acid is added to latex to cause coagulation of rubber molecules. The positively charged hydrogen ions from acid will neutralise the negative charges of rubber molecules. The coagulated latex is then rolled into sheets using rollers. The sheets are cut into suitable size and sent to the rubber factory for processing. The rubber sheets are washed with machines using soap and water to remove external dirt. Then, they are hanged on bamboo stems for drying for about 3-5 days depending on the thickness of the rubber sheets. After that, they are dried in the smoke house, maintained at a temperature of 700C, using wood from older rubber trees or coconut husks. This process is called smoking. After smoking, the rubber sheets become more transparent, and impurities can be more easily seen and removed. These smoked sheets are called Ribbed Smoked Sheets or RSS. They are graded as RSS1, RSS2, RSS3, RRS4 and RSS5 depending on their

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colour, purity and elasticity. The dried rubber sheets are then pressed into cubes using a hydraulic press. This form of rubber is called bulk rubber which is used to make tyres after vulcanisation of the rubber. The processed rubber sheets are then sold to factories to be made into a variety of substances. Today, Asia is the main source of natural rubber. The three largest producing countries (Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand) together account for around 72% of all natural rubber production. 13.3 Cross-linking in rubber Raw natural rubber is a thermoplastic and it becomes soft and sticky on hot days and hard when it is cooled to lower temperatures. Therefore its uses are limited. It can be made stiffer by introducing chemical bonds between the polymer chains. Forming bonds between chains is called cross-linking, which is shown in Figure 13.3 The greater the number of cross-links in a polymer, the more rigid the material.

Figure 13.3 Cross-linking in polymers 13.4 Vulcanisation of rubber The vulcanisation of natural rubber, a process discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839, is an example of cross-linking. Goodyear accidentally discovered that adding sulfur to rubber and then heating the mixture makes the rubber harder and reduces its susceptibility to oxidation or other chemical attack. The sulfur changes rubber into a thermosetting polymer by cross-linking the polymer chains through reactions at some of the double bonds. Cross-linking of about 5 percent of the double bonds creates a flexible, resilient rubber. When the rubber is stretched, the cross-links help prevent the chains from slipping, so that rubber retains its elasticity. Vulcanised rubber is stronger, harder and elastic and these properties do not change with temperature. Vulcanised

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rubber is used to make tyres and seat-belts. Figure 13.4 shows each disulphide group connecting two polyisoprene molecules.

Figure 13.4 Cross-linking in rubber 13.5 Properties of rubber

Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties.Some of the properties of natural rubber are: Flammable Elastic and can be stretched Reactive to chemical agents such as oil, grease and petrol Flexible since it is a thermoplastic that softens on heating and hardens on heating, can be melted and reshaped to be reused again and again Impermeable to water. This makes it an excellent barrier against pathogens such as HIV virus which causes AIDS. Sensitive to ozone cracking due to the presence of a double bond in each and every repeat unit

Thinking (1 hour)

Can you state some of the properties of synthetic rubber? Use a graphic organiser to compare and contrast the properties of synthetic rubber, natural rubber and vulcanised rubber.

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13.6

Uses of rubber

The uses of rubber including natural rubber, synthetic rubber and vulcanized rubber are varied. Natural rubber is used to make objects such as: Erasers Water hose Rubber band Soles of shoes Surgical and medical examination gloves and condoms Spring materials for engines to cut down on vibrations

Vulcanised rubber is used to make objects such as:

Car mats Car tyres Radiator hoses Window wiper blades Seals and suspension mountings

Synthetic rubber such as neoprene is used to make objects such as: Gaskets Car belts Conveyor belts Flexible pipes or hoses for the petrol industry because it is not attacked by petrol Insulating materials for electrical connections, especially where the environment has chemicals

Figure 13.5 Uses of rubber ((Source: http://images.google.com)

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Collecting Information (2 hours)

Do you know that in the late 1950s, Malaysia produced almost 40% of the worlds natural rubber. It was said that rubber built up Malaysia (Source: Countdown to 50th Merdeka!, The SUN newspaper, Monday August 13 2007, page 12). Gather information about the development of the rubber industry in Malaysia.

References Brown, T.L.; Lemay,H.E.; Bursten, B.E. (2000) Chemistry-The Central Science. Eighth Edition, New Jersey:Prentice Hall. McMurry,J.; Fay,R.C. (2001) Chemistry. Third Edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber (rubber industry) http://www.irrdb.com/IRRDB/Rubber_Industry/Other_Suppliers/ProcessingChemicals/Vu lcanization.htm (vulcanisation of rubber)

TOPIC 14

NATURAL POLYMERS- SILK, COTTON AND WOOL

Synopsis Natural polymers are used widely every day. This topic will discuss the main types of natural polymers, namely, cotton, wool and silk. It will explain the properties, the processing, and the uses of these natural polymers.

Learning Outcomes

1. 2. 3. 4.

State the type of natural polymers State the properties of natural polymers Explain the processing of natural polymers Explain the uses of natural polymers

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Overview

Natural polymers

Type of natural polymers

Properties of natural polymers

Processing of natural polymers

Uses of natural polymers

Figure 14.1 Overview of content Content 14.1 Polymer The term polymer originated from Greek words, poly means many and mer means parts. Polymers are long chain molecules formed by joining together many identical repeating sub-units called monomers. Polymers can be divided into two types: natural polymers synthetic polymers

Natural polymers are polymers obtained from living things such as plants and animals. Some examples of natural polymers are shown in Figure 14.2.

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starch

natural rubber Natural polymers

wool

cotton

silk

Figure 14.2 Types of natural polymers

Surf the Internet (1 hour)

Access the internet to gather information to compare natural polymers and synthetic polymers.

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14.2 Silk Silk is a natural protein fiber obtained from cocoons made by the larvae of silkworm reared in captivity. Silk is actually made of proteins secreted in the fluid state by silkworm caterpillar. These silkworms feed on selected food plants, namely mulberry leaves, and spin cocoons as a protective shell to perpetuate life.

Figure 14.3 Silkworm feeding on mulberry leaves (Source: http://images.google.com) Properties of silk are:

has natural shine has smooth and soft texture resistant to mineral acids has good moisture regain poor resistance to sunlight exposure moderate elasticity and wrinkle resistance strongest of all the natural fibers but loses 20% of its strength when wet

Figure 14.4 A silk fabric (Source: http://images.google.com)

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Figure 14.4 shows some of the uses of silk

Tie

Active clothing in warm weather

Uses of silk

Furnishing (Bed sheets, curtains)

Scarf

Figure 14.4 Uses of silk

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The flowchart below explains the processing of silk: Cocoons that have been spun by the silkworm are hand-picked and placed in oven The heat of the oven is enough to kill the silkworm but not damage the silk in the cocoon The cocoons are soaked in water Multiple threads from the soaked cocoons are unraveled to form a single thread Silk thread is further combined to form thicker strands and dyed to create desired colours

Figure 14.5 Process of manufacturing silk 14.3 Cotton

Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of cotton plant, a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including Africa, India and America. Cotton is a thirsty crop, so it must be cultivated in areas with less rainfall. The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make soft breathable textile, which is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today.

Figure 14.5 Cotton plant (Source: http://images.google.com)

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Below are the properties of cotton:

Strong Durable Prints well Comfortable Good absorbent of moisture Low resiliency (easily wrinkled) High resistance for alkali and organic solvent

Figure 14.6 Cotton (Source: http://images.google.com) How cotton is processed?

Cotton fiber, once it has been processed to remove seeds (ginning), consists of nearly pure cellulose, a natural polymer. Each cotton fiber is made up to twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton ball is opened, the fibres dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into fine yarn. Cotton production is very efficient, only ten percent or less of the weight is lost in subsequent processing to convert the raw cotton bolls (seed coat) into pure fiber. The cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton fibers a high degree of strength, durability, and absorbency.

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Figure 14.7 A worker carrying Figure 14.8 Cotton buds and swabs harvested cotton (Source: http://images.google.com) Cotton is used in the making of:

Towel Socks Bed sheets T-shirts Coffee filters Jeans Cotton buds and swabs

Surf the Internet (2 hours)

Access the internet to gather information on types of cotton.

14.4 Wool Wool is a fiber derived from the specialised skin cells, called follicles, of animals in the Caprinae family, principally sheep, but the hair of certain species of other mammals such as goats, llamas and rabbits may also be called wool. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is curly, it has a different texture or handle, elastic and grows in staples (clusters).

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Figure 14.9 Wool from sheep (Source: http://images.google.com) Below are the properties of wool: Warm materials Tightly crimped fibers The outer cells of the fiber repel water while the inner cells absorb moisture

High elasticity-wool possesses much greater ability to return to its natural length after being stretched than any artificial fiber. Highly absorbent-capable of retaining up to 25 percent of its weight in moisture.

ideal for dyes-wool takes on richer, deeper, purer colors than vegetable fiber

The processing of wool is listed below:

After shearing, wool contains a high level of grease which contains valuable lanolin, as well as dirt, dead skin, sweat residue, and vegetable matter. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes it must be scoured, or cleaned. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water, or a complicated industrial process using detergent and alkali. After that, the wool is separated into five main categories: Fleece, broken, pieces, bellies and locks. The quality of fleece is determined by a technique known as wool classing

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Reference ( 3 hours)

The processing of wool involves: spinning, carding, weaving, combing, dyeing, knitting and combing. Explain each process and the purpose of these processes in manufacturing wool. You may refer to http:www. austech.unimelb.edu.au/tin/267.html

Figure 14.10 Wool

Figure 14.11 Scarf made from wool (Source: http://images.google.com)

Wool is objectively measured for micron, yield, staple length, staple strength and sometimes color and comfort factor. Wool is widely used in making of:

Clothes such as sweaters Traditionally used to cover cloth diapers absorb odours and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers Blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, felt, wool insulation and upholstery Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers

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Thinking (2 hours)

Based on your study, construct a graphic organiser to compare and contrast the properties and the uses of silk, cotton and wool.

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/silk (silk) www.fabrics.net/silk.asp (silk) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cotton (cotton) www.fabrics.net/wool.asp (wool) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wool (wool)

TOPIC 15

NATURAL MATERIALS- PAPER

Synopsis We use many products made from paper. In this topic you will learn about different types of paper, their properties, the process of making paper and the uses of paper in our daily life. Learning Outcomes

1. State the types of paper 2. 3. 4.

State the properties of paper Explain the process of making paper State the uses of paper in our daily life

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OVERVIEW

PAPER

Types of paper

Properties of paper

Process of making paper

Uses of paper

Figure 15.1 Overview of content CONTENT The word paper derives from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or packaging.

15.1

Types of paper

Paper is a material that can be obtained in various types that differ in thickness and weight. Some types of paper include: Bank paper Book paper Inkjet paper pH indicator paper Photographic paper Plain paper Recycled paper Rice paper Paper towels Wall paper Wax paper Sand paper

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Coated paper (glossy and matt surface) Plain paper Newsprint

15.2

Properties of Paper

We use paper everyday. Its usefulness is due to its unique properties such as:

Basis Weight (GSM) Brightness, Whiteness and Colour Dimensional Stability Folding Endurance (Double Folds) Formation Gloss Machine and Cross Direction Moisture Opacity Porosity Sizing / Cobb Smoothness Stiffness Stretch (Elongation) Tearing Resistance Temperature and Humidity: Conditioning of Paper Thickness Wax Pick No. (Surface Strength) Wire side and Felt side

Making Notes (2 hours)

To get a better understanding of each of the properties of paper listed above, read the article in the following website: http://www.biltpaper.com/atoz2.asp . Make short notes on each of the properties of paper.

15.3

Process of making paper

Paper is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically vegetable fibers composed of cellulose, which are held together by hydrogen bonds, and drying them into flexible

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sheets. While the fibers used are usually natural in origin, a wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, may be incorporated into paper as a way of imparting desirable physical properties. The most common source of these kinds of fibers is wood pulp from pulpwood trees, largely softwoods and hardwoods, such as spruce and aspen respectively. Other vegetable fiber materials including those of cotton, hemp, linen, and rice may be used. The steps in the process of making paper are:

Fiber processing / pulping using chemical pulping or mechanical pulping Adding additives Drying Finishing

Fiber processing/pulping Wood or plant cell walls are composed of fibers bound together. During pulping, these fibers are separated from each other and carbohydrate surfaces, primarily cellulose or hemi-cellulose are exposed. Hydrogen bonding between these carbohydrate surfaces gives paper its strength. Fibers can be separated chemically, mechanically, or via a combination of the two. Chemical pulping The purpose of a chemical pulping process is to break down the chemical structure of lignin and render it soluble in the cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose fibers. Because lignin holds the plant cells together, chemical pulping frees the fibers and makes pulp. The pulp must be bleached to produce white paper for printing, painting and writing. Chemical pulps tend to cost more than mechanical pulps, largely due to the low yield, 40-50% of the original wood. Since the process preserves fiber length, however, chemical pulps tend to make stronger paper. Another advantage of chemical pulping is that the majority of the heat and electricity needed to run the process is produced by burning the lignin removed during pulping. Mechanical pulping There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and mechanical pulp. The latter is known in the USA as groundwood pulp. In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam-heated refiners where the chips are squeezed and fiberised between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones and fiberised. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, more than 95%, but also causes paper made from this pulp to yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fiber lengths and produce weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than chemical pulp. Additives

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Besides the fibers, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve the characteristics of the paper for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed into the pulp and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process. The purpose of sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit the ink or paint. Drying After the paper web is produced, the water must be removed from it in order to create a usable product. This is accomplished through pressing and drying. The methods of doing so vary between the different processes used to make paper, but the concepts remain the same. Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, another absorbent material must be used to collect this water. On a paper machine this is called a felt. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used. Drying involves using air and or heat to remove water from the paper sheet. In the earliest days of papermaking this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry. In more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. The most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These dryer cans heat to temperatures above 200F (93C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans. The heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture. Finishing The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications. Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution half-tone screens. Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matt, semi-matt or silk, and gloss. The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibers in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. All paper produced by Fourdrinier-type machines is wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders. 15.4 Uses of paper

Paper is a versatile material with many uses. Whilst the most common is for writing and printing upon, it is also widely used as a packaging material, in many cleaning products, and in a number of industrial and construction processes, and occasionally as a food ingredient, particularly in Asian cultures. Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use, such as:

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To write or print on: the piece of paper becomes a document; this may be for keeping a record (or in the case of printing from a computer or copying from another paper: an additional record) and for communication. To represent a value: paper money, bank note, cheque,voucher, ticket For entertainment: book, magazine, newspaper, art For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, wrapping tissue, wallpaper For cleaning : toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue For construction : paper mache, origami, quiling, paper engineering, clothing Other uses: sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper, filter paper

Figure 15.4 Uses of paper (Source: http://images.google.com)

Exercise (2 hours)

Access the internet to gather information and to compare and contrast the properties of different types of paper and their uses in daily life.

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Thinking (10 hours)

We can reuse paper by recycling it. Make your own recycled paper. Go to the internet for suggestions on how to make recycled paper. This website http://www.recyclenow.com/why_recycling_matters/how_is_it_recycled/pa per/ may be helpful. Create a useful item using the recycled paper you have made. Organise a mini science exhibition to present the process of recycling paper and the products made from the recycled paper. Keep a photograph journal of the exhibition. At the end of the activity, answer the following questions: What have you learnt from this activity? Which part of the primary science curriculum teaches this topic on paper? Discuss how you can use this activity in your teaching and learning. What was the role of the teacher in this activity?

References http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper (paper) http://www.writersservices.com/wbs/care_history_paper.htm (History of paper making) http://www.writersservices.com/wbs/care_storing_books.htm (how to store books) http://www.biltpaper.com/atoz2.asp (properties of paper) http://www.recyclenow.com/why_recycling_matters/how_is_it_recycled/paper/ (recycling of paper) http://www.paperonweb.com/pmake.htm (processing paper) http://www.geocities.com/kirktayl/ (how to organise a science exhibition) http://www.paperonweb.com/density.htm (properties of paper)

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