Book: Automotive mechanics by s.

Srinivasan
Engine performs work Although this is for cars from the 50's, the basics haven't been changed much and you could use this info for learning how a car engine works. The manner in which the engine performs its work is illustrated below. The crank of the bicycle and the crank in the engine work in similar fashion. When the rider pushes down on the pedal of the bicycle, A, the force exerted on the crank causes the sprocket to be turned. The turning or rotary force thus developed is called "torque." Torque then is that which produces or tends to produce rotation. The pressure developed in the cylinder, B, when the fuel charge is burned, results in force being delivered to the crank of the engine through the piston and connecting rod so that power is developed in the engine. This force or power causes the rotation of the crankshaft and the flywheel. If a weight, C, is attached to a rope, and the rope attached to the flywheel which is being turned by the power secured from the burning fuel, the weight will be lifted. The amount of force thus developed is termed "footpounds of torque." For instance, if the radius of the flywheel were 12 inches or one foot and the weight lifted were 200 pounds then the torque would be 200 foot-pounds. This ability taken in conjunction with the speed at which the rim of the flywheel is moving is the basis of calculation of horse power. What is horse power? One horse power is the ability to lift 150 pounds a distance of 220 feet in one minute. The total amount of work performed is 33,000 foot-pounds a minute. The same amount of work would be performed if the horse were to lift one pound 33,000 feet a minute, or if his work resulted in lifting 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute. Due to the fact that in the case of early mechanical devices use was made of the horse as a source of power, the practice of speaking in terms of horse power, with reference to engines, has long had acceptance in the engineering fraternity. In the days when horses were used for power, if one horse could not do the work required, additional horses were added to make available the amounts of power required. Likewise, in the case of early engines, if a single cylinder would not do the work, other cylinders were added. In automobile engines, when it is necessary to increase the amount of power, other pistons are added. Of course, the bore and stroke of the engine have much to do with the power developed.

Horse power developed by the engine, is used to turn the flywheel and transmission gears, and finally is delivered through the rear axle to the rear wheels, the friction of which, in contact with the road, causes the car to be driven along the highway. It may be said that the horse power developed in the engine is used to do work in propelling the car. The manner in which the parts of automobile engines are designed and work together to develop power is explained in the following pages of this chapter. Engine capacity Gasoline engines are made in sizes varying from the fractional horse-power engines used about homes for the operation of small machines, such as the washing machine, cream separator, and the light power requirements, up to engines developing as much as 1,000 or 2,200 horse power for aircraft and marine uses. Most automobile engines fall between the lower power ranges, seldom developing over 200 horse power. The ability of an engine to do work is dependent upon the power or the horse power developed. This in turn is dependent upon the capacity of the engine. A single-cylinder engine, has a certain capacity. Four similar engines connected together, has four times the capacity for work. As a matter of fact, it would likely develop more than four times the power for the simple reason that the larger number of cylinders makes for a more continuous flow of power, or, let us say, a more even torque. The size of the engine is ordinarily spoken of as having to do with the bore of the cylinder and the stroke of the piston. The larger these two items, the greater the displacement of the engine and naturally the more fuel which will be drawn in and compressed to be burned, and, of course, the greater the power which will be developed. Just as it is readily understood that a team of horses will do more work than one horse, so the student of automotive mechanics understands that two cylinders of the same size will do more work than one, and further understands that a larger cylinder or a cylinder with a greater capacity will do more work than a single cylinder of smaller capacity. For this reason we have all engines rated by bore and stroke and the number of cylinders, and this in turn gives the total displacement of the engine and determines in no small Way the capacity of the engine to do real work. There are two methods of rating horse power of engines, one of these being an arbitrary method of getting the S.A.E. rating which has to do with the licensing requirements in all states and in fact in most countries. The other is the actual power developed which is measured as brake horse power. These features will be discussed at a later point. If the student will remember that the same kind of action as that illustrated at A and B, is occurring at all times in the engine, when it is being operated under its own power, he can appreciate just how the power passing from the engine into the transmission line may be used to turn the propeller shaft. This in turn will drive the axle shafts which are geared 5 to 1 with reference to the propeller shaft and turn the rear wheels to drive or propel the car forward in the case of forward speed, or in a reverse direction in the case of reverse speed. The student should now have an elementary understanding of just what is meant by power, torque, and work in relation to the automobile and thus be in a position to understand the need of knowing the theory on which the construction of the gasoline automobile is made. Engine and ignition time Only those parts which are essential to engine or ignition timing are shown. Engine timing is done from cylinder Number 1, considering the first throw of the crankshaft and the first rod and piston. The two cams, the two valve lifters, and the two valves belonging to this cylinder are considered for this work. The camshaft gear and the crankshaft gear likewise are essential. Other parts of the engine are nonessential and, for the sake of the study and actual engine-timing process, may be entirely ignored.

In addition to the parts named above, other parts are necessary for ignition timing. These are the timer-distributor, the ignition drive shaft and gears, all spark plugs, spark-retard device, ammeter, ignition switch and the primary wiring, the distributor (part of the ignition head), and the high-tension wiring. These units have all been gathered in compact, yet visible form, in the instruction stand illustrated. The stand does not illustrate engine-building practice, but rather illustrates exact timing of parts, functions of parts, and interrelation of those parts essential to engine and ignition timing. Diesel engine principle Fuel is not drawn in with the air but is injected after the air charge has been compressed. Compression ignition is used to fire the mixture. Otherwise the cycle of operation is the same as for the gasoline engine. Casting cylinder blocks Since the earliest successes of the motor car, the tendency in cylinder design has been along the line of arranging them all in one block. The earliest designs called for single cylinder castings, mounted individually on a crankcase casting. Next came the cylinders cast in pairs for the four-cylinder engine, and with the development of the six-cylinder engine the cylinders were cast in two blocks, three to a block. Shortly, the manufacturers were casting the four cylinders in one block for the four-cylinder engine, but the practice of casting the six cylinders together was a bit slower in being made practical. Eight cylinders in V form or in line in a single block are designed and produced without eliciting any comment in modern practice. However, the matter of turning out perfect castings, as complicated as are the castings for a modern motor-car engine, is no slight feat. Not only are the water jackets and other passageways cast about the cylinders for their cooling, but the intake ports and exhaust ports are cored out in the casting. All manner of bosses, brackets, and other parts are cast as part of the single-block casting. A block so cast is without a multitude of joints and connections, which are needed when cylinders are cast separately and assembled on a crankcase. Perhaps the greatest improvement, however, is one of engine operation. Casting the cylinders in one block helps to maintain an even operating temperature throughout the entire block and assures approximately the same operating temperature to all cylinders. Power impulses The number of cylinders in an engine has less to do with the power of the engine than with its smoothness. For instance, it is easily possible to build a 100-horse-power engine with four, six, or eight cylinders. Naturally the pistons in the four would have approximately twice the head area of those in the eight. Each power impulse gained from burning fuel charges would need to be approximately twice as heavy for like engine speeds of an eight. Heavier impulses result in greater strains and consequently more vibration. While it is true that inherent balance and other engineering data enter into this picture, it is generally conceded that the forces of the power impulses are the largest factor in smooth or rough engines. Engine bearings In practically all instances, the main bearings of motor-car engines are cast or fitted into the webs and ends of the crankcase. These bearings are usually of the babbitt-lined type, in most cases. Ball bearings have been used with success, but this construction is seldom used for passenger-car engines. Lead-bronze, steel-backed bearings are claimed to show a longer life under conditions of hard service. Airplane and marine, as well as truck engines, are using them with complete success. They are also used with success in passenger-car engines. The babbitt and bronze bearings are what is termed the split-bushing or plain-bearing type.

The upper halves of the bearings appear in the crankcase ends and webs, while the lower halves are bolted onto the upper halves by means of studs set into the crankcase metal. The larger bearing caps are provided with four stud holes. The backs of the bearings may be aluminium, cast iron, cast steel, malleable iron, or drop forgings. The babbitt metal, with which they are lined, may be sweated or spun into the cap, or the cap may be machined to accurate limits and the babbitt sweated onto a brass, bronze, or steel back. Shims are carried between the two halves of main bearings in many cases of splash-type lubrication but are not commonly used for bearings in forced-lubrication engines. They are thin sheet metal, stamped to the general form of the face of the cap where it joins onto the upper half. Cylinder heads With the success of the motor car and its adoption by the public came an insistent demand to have the heads made so that carbon could more readily be removed. This led to the rather universal practice of making cylinder heads in separate castings so that they might be removed. Manifolds The design of manifolds is of interest since the efficiency of the engine is largely dependent on them. For updraft carburetors the intake manifold is fitted with a flange at the centre bottom, and with flanges on the ends where it is attached to the cylinder block. The exhaust manifold, has been designed to bolt onto the cylinder block, in a manner which connects the upper part with each exhaust-valve port of the eight-cylinder engine. The heater at the centre permits exhaust gases to surround the intake manifold and warm the incoming fuel charge. These manifolds carry three exhaust-port flanges which are connected to the cylinder block. Heat flows from the exhaust passages into the metal of the manifold. Fuel charges, passing through the intake passageways, pick up this heat. Oil pans and oil sumps The lower half of the crankcase is made from pressed sheet metal in practically all cases. This makes it light and, at the same time, strong. It will stand the occasional jar or blow better than if it were of cast metal. Being in the lowest position of the parts making up the power plant, it not infrequently is struck by flying stones or receives a blow from some other cause, especially in the out-of-way places and in rough going. Flywheels The design and construction of flywheels, on first glance, would seem to be of slight interest. As a matter of fact, much of the stamina of the engine, as well as its flexibility and pickup, is dependent on the flywheel. In the first place, it is essential to the smooth operation of the engine. It stores up the energy received from the explosions within the cylinder, and gives it off at those points where the engine develops no power, otherwise the engine would not run. The first explosion would drive it to bottom dead centre, and without the flywheel to carry it on, it would stop there. High-speed racing engines use very light flywheels. This duty of keeping the engine turning at one time was of greater importance than in later design. Much more weight is generally carried in the crankshaft than formerly, and where counterbalances are used, they serve to store and give off the required energy. Some manufacturers use two flywheels, one on each end of the crankshaft. This has the effect of placing the entire job in more even balance similar to the result obtained by the use of counterbalances. The flywheel serves the purpose of acting as a mounting for the starter ring gear. Sometimes the teeth are cut directly in the flywheel metal, and again the wheel is machined to receive a toothed ring. In the latter case, the ring only is replaced in case of damaged teeth.

Vibration dampers The tendency of a rubber band, which has been wound up by twisting, to unwind as soon as released, as in the case of a toy airplane, is well known. If a yardstick is grasped with one hand on each end it is possible to twist or wind it. As soon as pressure is released it snaps back. So it is with a crankshaft. The force tending to wind it is delivered from the piston through the connecting rod on each explosion. Unless a damper is provided it snaps back to position so rapidly as to set up engine vibrations. Dampers may be placed on the forward end of the shaft outside the crankcase or on one of the forward throws of the shaft within the engine case. They operate on the principle of gradual release of the power stored on the wind-up, allowing the shaft to unwind slowly. Try this with the yardstick, first winding it sharply and then releasing suddenly, and then, on the second trial, hold both ends and release gradually. The higher the engine speed the greater the tension to hold against severe vibration, and the lower the engine speed the less friction required and induced. Piston pins A variety of piston pins is used. Some are made to anchor in the piston-pin bosses of the piston, and some are made to anchor in the upper end of the rods. Some have oil holes provided, and others do not. Common practice in piston-pin design seems to be making the pins of large diameter, considering the size of the piston, etc. The next consideration is lightness, and this is secured by making the pin in tubular form. The large diameter insures long wear, and the lightness reduces vibration. The method of securing the pin to the rod or the piston, as the case may be, is rather immaterial as long as the particular fastening device is secure and does not loosen. Many devices have been evolved to retain the piston pin in its proper position within the piston. When the pin is anchored to the rod, no other provision is needed. It is essential, however, to have the clamping screw properly locked to prevent its loosening. Various devices have been used to secure the pins in position by placing them in the piston-pin boss at the ends of the pins. These may take the form of soft-metal washers just fitting the pin hole, or they may be in the form of split springs which are sprung into a recessed groove just at the ends of the piston pins. A lock ring fitted to a groove in the upper end of the piston rod and another groove in the centre of the piston pin is another means of retaining piston pins. Piston design It is generally conceded that cast iron is a good piston material so far as long life and expansion properties are concerned. Cast-iron pistons may be plated with tin or other long wearing metal to promote rapid breaking in and long life. The aluminium pistons are claimed to be less given to an accumulation of carbon, owing to better heat conducting properties. They are also desirable from the fact that they materially decrease engine vibration. An engine equipped with them has good pickup and is flexible. A serious objection to the aluminium pistons, when they are cast and produced along the lines of the cast-iron pistons, is the excessive clearance. Aluminium expands twice as fast as cast iron, and on this account twice the clearance must be allowed when fitting the solid-type aluminium piston to the cylinder bore. In order to overcome this detrimental feature, the so-called constant-clearance pistons were evolved. These pistons are provided with a split skirt and are fitted to the cylinders with just bare clearance, say .001 in. to .002 in. When the engine warms up the metal expands, but this merely causes the groove to become smaller and allows the piston to retain its close fit in the cylinder bore. Of course, the ring lands are relieved so that expansion at that point will not cause the piston to grip the cylinder wall. These pistons have overcome the objection to the aluminium piston from the point of expansion. Aluminium pistons of the old solid-skirt type were noisy until they were thoroughly warmed. These pistons are always snug to the cylinder walls. That is the reason for calling this particular type constant-clearance pistons.

Piston rings Rings in the upper two grooves are compression ; those in the lower two grooves are oil-control rings. Aside from the rings made along conventional lines, there are scores of other designs. There are rings made in one piece, two pieces, three pieces, and four pieces. They include those which have special oil grooves. They represent a multitude of special joints, all designed to prevent the loss of compression. A number of expanders on the market are designed to be placed back of the ring to keep it in close contact with the cylinder wall at all times. Some of these rings give good results. Many rings are made with square-cut ends. Slots may be cut through the rings for purposes of oil control. Where the cylinder block and crankcase are cast separately, the usual practice is to screw studs into the case and anchor the cylinder block to it with a gasket between block and crankcase. This allows the cylinder block to be handled more readily, and is an economy if either unit suffers serious damage, since they may be replaced independently of each other. Aluminium, because of its light weight, is an ideal crankcase metal for use when the cylinder block and crankcase are cast separately. It is light in weight and has good strength. It works readily, and has a fine appearance. It lends itself nicely to cleaning, and when clean adds much to the attractiveness of the power plant. It requires no finish in the way of paints or enamels, and will not rust or tarnish. Aside from the mechanical duties which the crankcase must perform, such as carrying the crankshaft and bearings, the camshaft and bearings, the cylinder block, the water pump, the oil pump, the oil lines, the starting motor, the generator, and other units, it must act as a retainer for the lubricating oil. While it may be designed in a rather irregular form, it must be so designed that it can be machined to fine limits, so that all parts will fit and so that all gear covers and oil pans may be drawn down to a close, accurate fit on the gaskets laid on its machined surfaces, thus making it oil-tight. The crankcase carries the crankshaft, and as a rule, the camshaft. One bearing is provided for the crankshaft at each end of the case. Wherever additional bearings are to be used, the case must have webs cast across to receive them. Some engineers provide main-shaft bearings to a number one in excess of the number of cylinders. Thus a four-cylinder car will have five main bearings and a sixcylinder car will have seven. A straight-eight would have nine bearings, but a V-8 would not have in excess of five. A web in the crankcase is necessary to carry each main except the end ones. The more webs provided the more rigid the crankcase, and consequently, other elements of design being equal, the greater the freedom from distortion and vibration of the crankshaft and case. Crankshafts and firing orders Figure shows several styles of crankcases which might be used for six-cylinder engines, one with three, one with four, and the other with seven main bearings. The design of the crankshaft has a determining influence on the design of the crankcase. The style of shaft used also has a determining influence on the camshaft design. When the firing order of the engine has been determined by the engine builder, then the crankshaft and the camshaft must be manufactured according to a design which will give

the desired results. The early part of this page gives an explanation of the four-stroke cycle with reference to a single cylinder. For instance, figure 2 left side illustrates the first throw of a crankshaft and the two cams for the valve action for the first cylinder, these two being connected together and driven in time by means of a silent chain and sprockets. The ratio is two turns of the crank to one of the camshaft. If the student will remember that each cylinder of any engine must have these working parts working in conjunction with it, he will be able to gain an understanding of the more complicated construction of multicylinder engines. In figure above here, the simplest type of crankshaft is shown at A. In principle of operation this is similar to the crank on the bicycle. In the case of the bicycle the force comes on the pedal which is like the crank pin of the shaft A. The crank pin carries the connecting rod and this is like the cyclist's leg in transmitting force from the pedal to the crank pin. In order to balance the weight of the piston-and-rod assembly, counterbalances such as are shown at B, may be used. The two-throw shaft at C is an example of how a counterbalanced shaft for a twocylinder engine may be built. This shaft has two throws, two crank pins, and two mains. A shaft for a single-cylinder engine or one for a two-cylinder engine presents no problem when it comes to an order of firing the cylinders. When a four-cylinder engine is designed the firing order does need consideration. The shaft shown in figure left has a firing order of 1-2-4-3 as may be traced out by the lines and arrows. The firing order might be 1-3-4-2. This same shaft might be used for a V-8 design if the rods were set side by side, two rods for each crank pin.

The sequence of operations in a six-cylinder engine is illustrated in figure left. Cylinder Number 1 shows at the end of the firing stroke, direction of rotation being indicated by the curved arrow. Five is just firing so we have the beginning of the firing order 1-5. Three is on compression and will be fired when it reaches top dead centre so we have 1-5-3. Six is shown on intake (suction) so that it will follow next, and since 2 has just started intaking and four is on exhaust they will follow in order, that is, 1-5-3-6-2-4. The valve and valve ports in the cylinder bead above are indicated. Cam action must be such as to open these valves in time and proper order for the firing order. Cams are forged out as an integral part of the shaft. The lift of a cam is ordinarily 5/16 in., sometimes running as high as 3/8 in. The lift of the cam is usually the lift of the valve, or the amount of opening for the valve. When rocker arms are used the pivot point of the arm has an influence on the total valve lift.

The length of time a valve may be held open is determined largely by the width (dwell) of the cam nose. This is termed "dwell" because it holds the valve open. The valve lifters, whether they are of the mushroom type, or the hydraulic type, ride directly upon the cams. Designers give much thought and attention to the task of getting the valve lifter to follow over the cam in a proper fashion. It is difficult to obtain quick valve lifting and return and at the same time produce a valve action that will remain quiet, positive, and smooth-running for a long time. Strong valve springs are used to cause the valve lifter to follow the contour of the cam. Camshafts are designed with the journals a bit larger than the cams are high. This is necessary to permit removing the camshaft endwise from its bearings in the crankcase. Camshaft drive Timing gears are the oldest form of camshaft drive. Many materials have been used for timing gears and timing-gear idlers, with the idea of silencing them. Paper, fibre, and similar composition gears, and aluminium, bronze, and similar metals have been used in attempts to get away from disagreeable timing-gear noises. Timing-gear noises are due to the irregular load placed on them from the action of the valve lifters and valve springs. This is especially noticeable at low speeds, causing them, when badly worn, to knock and rattle. Chain drive Silent-chain or link-belt drive is largely used for camshaft and accessory drive. It is free from disagreeable noises. The chief objection is looseness, due to stretching. Stretching is due to wear within the chain links. An idler gear, which may be adjusted automatically or from an eccentric arrangement controlled from the outside, may be provided to compensate for wear. The automatic take-up is controlled by spring action, and the chain runs under proper tension at all times. Most chains have arrows stamped on them indicating the direction of drive. The eccentric-bushing and idler-gear adjustment requires manual adjustment from time to time. Timing marks are placed on chains and sprockets so that the engine (valve) timing may be set, on occasion. They are not so easily found as in the case of timing gears, but may he detected on the chain and sprockets.