Maths Portfoli o

2010
STELLAR NUMBERS TYPE 1 SL

Aiden Hatcher

IB Maths SL Portfolio
Stellar Numbers Type 1

Triangular Number
Five sets of evenly spaced dots in triangular patterns are shown in the diagrams below. The number of dots in each diagram exemplifies Triangular Numbers (1, 3, 6)

Through a close examination of the diagrams, a clear pattern becomes apparent. In each diagram, progressively, there is one more row of dots than in the previous diagram, that row having one more dot than the previous row. This shows, that because the difference between each diagram is the same, the diagrams can be assumed to be part of a sequence, and the diagrams can be given term numbers, with the first being T1, the second T2, etc. In this way, more diagrams can be added to the sequence by simply adding an extra row with the same number of dots as the term number to the previous term. For example, the number of dots in T6 would be equal to the dots in T5, plus the term number, 6. This method can be used to find the next diagram in the sequence progressively.

T6

T7

T8

However, this simplistic method can only be used to add one new term to the sequence each time, meaning that finding the value of very large terms such as T100 would be extremely

difficult and inefficient. A more effective method to find the number of dots in a term would be to devise a formula that would describe the progression of the number of dots. This can be done by first analyzing the differences between each term. Term number Number of dots T1 1 T2 3 T3 6 T4 10 T5 15

This table shows that the number of dots in each term is equal to the term number of that term plus the number of dots in the previous term. This relationship is shown in the following table Term number Number of dots T1 1 T2 1+2 T3 1+2+3 T4 1+2+3+4 T5 1+2+3+4+5

This clearly follows the form of an arithmetic sequence, because each new term is equal to the sum of the previous term plus the term number. With this information, a formula for this sequence can be derived from the formula of an arithmetic sequence, shown below. n represents the term number, a represents the number of dots in the first term, and d the common difference e the terms.
n ( 2a + (n 1)d ) 2

For the triangular number sequence, the first term is has one dot. This means that for this sequence, a is equal to one.
a =1

For an arithmetic sequence, d represents the difference between each term, so the value of d for the triangular sequence is equal to one.
d =1

Now that this information is known, a formula for the triangular pattern sequence can be devised by substituting these values into the arithmetic sequence formula.
Tn = n ( 2 1 + (n 1) 1) 2

Which can be simplified to:

Tn = n ( n +1) 2

This simple formula now can be used to calculate the number of dots of any triangular pattern in the sequence, with a term number greater than 0.

Stellar Numbers
Triangular patterns are not the only dot shapes that follow a pattern however; another prime example of this is in stellar numbers. P-stellar numbers, where p represents the number of vertices on the star shape, also can be formed with dots. This means that, for example, a 6-stellar shape would be a 6-pointed star. The first four stages of this 6-pointed star shape are shown below, where each stage represents a new layer added to the shape of the stellar shape.

S1

S2

S3

S4

.While it appears clear that there is a progressive pattern which would describe how the number of dots increases from each term, it appears much more difficult to produce a formula for this 6-stellar shape than for the triangular patterned shapes. To find this relationship between the 6-stellar diagrams, the first step is to set out the differences between each stage.

Term number Number of dots Number of layers

S1 1 1

S2 13 2

S3 37 3

S4 73 4

This initial table appears to show no clear pattern, so it is apparent that the progression needs to be examined in greater detail. To better show the difference between each term, the following table shows the number of dots in each layer for each term. Term number Dots in layer 0 Dots in layer 1 Dots in layer 2 Dots in layer 3 S1 1 N/A N/A N/A S2 1 12 N/A N/A S3 1 12 24 N/A S4 1 12 24 36

By breaking down the number of dots into a layer-by-layer approach, it becomes apparent that on each new layer, there are 12 new dots compared to the previous layer. Each term has one more layer around it, with each layer having 12 times the previous term number of dots (12Sn-1), excluding S1. This means that if the term number is represented by n, then the following simple formula can be produced:
S n =12 ( n 1) + S ( n 1)

This does not work for S1, because this term only has one dot. This means that this formula is only useful in the range: n >1 By using this very simple formula, the number of dots in more 6-stellar terms in this series can be found. Because S4 is known to have 73 dots, S5 can be found using this formula.
S5 =12 (5 1) + S 4 S5 = 60 12 + 73 S5 =121

S5

This shows that the fifth term has 121 dots overall, which can be verified by counting the dots. Now that the number of dots in this term is known, S6 can be found in exactly the same way.
S 6 =12 (6 1) + S5

S6

S6 = 72 12 +121 S6 =181

This formula, however, is not useful for most situations, as it requires the number of dots in the previous term to work. To find the general term for this sequence, a better formula must be devised. All of the data for the 6-stellar shapes are presented in the table below. Term number Number of dots S1 1 S2 1+12 S3 1+12+24 S4 S5 S6

1+12+24+36 1+12+24+36+48 1+12+24+36+48+60

The first point that is clear after looking at this data is that the first term, S1, does not follow the same pattern as the rest of the data, which increases by 12 dots for each layer. This seems logical, as S1 only has a single dot because it is not a proper stellar shape. However, aside from the first term, the rest of the data seems to follow the clear trend of an arithmetic sequence, similar to the triangular sequence previously.
Sn = n ( 2a + ( n 1) d ) 2

Because of this, it is possible to assume that by devising an arithmetic series formula for the progression using the first term as 12 and adding one to the equation, a formula for the 6stellar shapes can be created.
n 2 ( 2 12 + ( n 1) 12 ) + 1

This can be used to calculate the number of dots in S7. Because the first term is said to be 12, which is actually the value of S2, n will actually have the value of one less that 7. This gives the following equation.
6 S 7 = ( 2 12 + ( 6 1) 12 ) + 1 2

This can be solved with algebra:

S 7 = [ 3( 24 + 5 12 ) ] + 1 S7 = [ 3( 24 + 60 ) ] + 1
S 7 = 3 84 +1 S7 = 252 +1 S 7 = 253

This means that the number of dots in S7 is equal to 253, which proves to follow the pattern in the same manner as the other terms. This is shown in the table below. Term number Number of dots S1 1 S2 1+12 S3 1+12+24 S4 1+12+24+3 6 S5 1+12+24+3 6+48 S6 1+12+24+3 6+48+60 S7 1+12+24+3 6+48+60+ 72

Using this same equation used to calculate S7, a general formula for Sn can be derived.
n 2 ( 2 12 + ( n 1) 12 ) + 1

Because this value of a applies to S2, not S1, then the formula will be equal to Sn+1.
n S n +1 = ( 2 12 + ( n 1) 12 ) + 1 2

This equation can now be simplified using algebra into a simpler formula. First, 12 can be taken out of the brackets:
n S n +1 = 12 ( 2 + ( n 1) ) + 1 2
n S n +1 = 12 ( 2 + n 1) + 1 2

12 n ( n +1) +1 S n +1 = 2

This can be simplified to:

S n +1 = 6n( n +1) +1

Because this equation is equal to Sn+1, then therefore by substituting n = (n1) into the equation the value of Sn can be found. Let n = (n 1)
S n 1+1 = 6(n 1)( n 1 +1) +1
S n = 6( n 1) n +1

Therefore,
S n = 6n( n 1) +1

By expanding the brackets, the following formula can be found:

S n = 6n 2 6 n + 1

This general expression can be used now to calculate the number of dots in 6-stellar shapes. It is notable that the expression has 6n in it, where there are 6 vertices. This suggests that it is possible the number in front of the term number represents the number of vertices on the stellar shape. To test this theory, it will be applied to a different stellar shape; a 5-stellar number. Presented below are the first 4 stages of a 5-stellar shape, S1, S2, S3 and S4.

S1

S2

S3

S4

The numbers of dots in 5-stellar shapes are presented in the table below. Term number Number of dots Number of layers S1 1 1 S2 1+10 2 S3 1+10+20 3 S4 1+10+20+30 4

Initially, it appears that these 5-stellar numbers would follow the same trend. Like the 6stellar numbers, the series increases each time by a set value, in this case 10. This suggests that the same formula used to derive the number of dots in the 6-stellar number can be used, by substituting 5 instead of 6 into the equation:
S n = 5n 2 5n + 1

To test this, the formula will be used to calculate the values of S5, S6 and S7.

For S5, the formula would be:

S 5 = 5 52 5 5 + 1
S5 = 125 25 +1 S5 =101

This is equal to 1+10+20+30+40, which is the correct number of dots for S5. S5 For S6, the same method can be used.

S5 = 5 6 2 5 6 + 1
S5 = 180 30 +1 S5 =151

S6

This is equal to 1+10+20+30+40+50, which is the correct number of dots for S6.

Once again, the same method can be used to find S7.

S5 = 5 7 2 5 7 +1
S5 = 245 35 +1 S 5 = 211

S7

This is equal to 1+10+20+30+40+50+60, which is the correct number of dots for S7.

All of the results obtained from the general formula for the 5-stellar numbers proved to be correct, which suggests that the statement that the numbers in front of the term number represent the number of vertices of the shape.

However, for greater certainty, the general statement will be tested again, but this time using 7-stellar numbers. Below are the first four terms of the 7-stellar series, S1, S2, S3 and S4.

S1

S2

S3

S4

The number of dots in these 7-stellar shapes are presented in the table below. Term number Number of dots Number of layers S1 1 1 S2 1+14 2 S3 1+14+28 3 S4 1+14+28+42 4

Like the 5-stellar numbers, this table appears to follow the same trend; but this time increasing in each term by 14 dots. This suggests that by substituting a 7 instead of 6 or 5, the equation can be used to find the number of dots in 7-stellar shapes.
S n = 7n 2 7n + 1

To test this, the formula will be used to calculate the values of S5, S6 and S7. For S5, the formula would be:
S 5 = 7 52 7 5 + 1
S 5 = 175 35 +1

S5

S 5 =141

This is equal to 1+14+28+42+56, which is the correct number of dots for S5. For S6, this method can once again be used.

S5 = 7 62 7 6 + 1

S6

S 5 = 252 42 +1 S 5 = 211

This is equal to 1+14+28+42+56+70, which is the correct number of dots for S6.

Once again, the same method can be used to find S7.

S5 = 7 7 2 7 7 + 1
S5 = 343 49 +1 S 5 = 295

This is equal to 1+14+28+42+56+70+84, which is the correct number of dots for S7. S7 Like the 5-stellar numbers, the 7-stellar numbers also follow this formula. This proves that the assumption that for any p-stellar number, the following formula can be used to find the number of dots by substituting p into the place of 6 for the 6-stellar shape equation.
S n = pn 2 pn + 1

It is clear that through testing this formula using 5, 6 and 7-stellar shapes that it is effective in predicting the number of dots in p-stellar shapes. However, it is clear that there are some limitations to this general equation. Although the formula allows for all p values, there are several values of p which would not create stellar shapes. This is most obvious for values less that zero, because there cannot be a negative number of dots in the shape. This means that:
p 0

However, p cannot be equal to zero either, as this would result in the term being equal to one each term, which would not be a stellar shape. This means:
p >0

However, p can also not be equal to one, as this would result in an impossible shape. For this reason,
p >1

It can now be assumed that overall, the general statement for p-stellar shapes is:
S n = pn 2 pn + 1 , p > 1