ARNIS ALLIANCE RULESFULL CONTACT SINGLE STICK SPARRING A new sporting version of full contact stick fighting

..This version was originated in Manila, Philippines in 2005 and was quickly adopted by the Rapid Arnis Organization and in two World Championships it received no less than 5 world titles and a host of silver and bronze medals with only 9 fighters in total. This format was brought to the UK by Rapid Arnis International and already has gain great interest from other FMA styles and systems who have also had great success in this format and the competitor list has been growing steady ever since. Since 2005 the rules have been fine tuned to come up with what we believe is a version of the sport that not only suits long rang and close range fighters, but also sword based and stick based systems equally.Even from a spectator point of view we believe this is one of the most entertaining and exciting events to watch.

ENDORSEMENTS Weapons Sparring Format The tournament is full contact continuous sparring with padded sticks, with a head guard and groin guard
only (Chest guard for ladies), NO gloves, NO elbow/knee pads and NO arm pads for all adults in single and double stick divisions. Although for 5' Long stick division gloves are mandatory and all children's divisions must also additionally wear chest guards and gloves. There are 3 x 1 minute rounds in each bout with 3 judges, a referee, a score keeper, a timekeeper and a ring adjudicator. The fighting area must be a minimum of 4 meters by 4 meters square to a maximum of 6 meters by 6 meters square. Sparring Equipment The only headgear allowed will be of the official WEKAF design. Single sparring events will use the approved 28 padded stick which consists of a rattan core, wrapped in light foam encased in a canvas sleeve. Only the head protectors and sticks will be provided on the day, more specific personal equipment such as groin/chest protectors and gloves will not be available and must be provided by the individual fighters with the exception of children's chest protectors where a limited supply will be provided. In the interest of health and safety ladies must wear chest protection and men must wear groin protection. All personal sparring equipment will be subject to referee approval and/or ring adjudicator s approval.

Target Areas The target areas are anywhere from the toe up, but players must pay careful attention to protect their heads as a priority to
keep this as realistic as possible. Checking (short, sharp palm strike) and parrying is allowed with the empty/live hand to the body and arms/hands as a means of defense, but please ensure it is not pushing. There is NO grabbing, throwing, holding, punching or kicking as all strikes must be done with the weapon with downward thrusts allowed to the body and leg areas but NO head thrusts, upward thrusts or any butt strikes as they can be dangerous and have been the cause of serious injuries in the past.

Aims & Objectives of Game The aim in each round is to be the first to score five points and this is achieved by obtaining five clean shots against the opponent while applying various combinations of attack and defense techniques, which is harder than it sounds, as hitting each other at the same time cancels out that shot which is loosely sword based to appeal to both sword based and stick based FMA systems equally. This is usually best achieved by making a clean shot on the way in or on the way out of an attack on the opponent. The objective is to display the art as closely as possible within a sporting arena whilst still keeping it exciting and entertaining and allowing the spectators to clearly see and understand the fight as it unfolds. GENERAL RULES Prior to a bout competitors names will firstly be called out one fight in advance and for a second time before the start of
the last round of the fight before their own scheduled bout to which they should be ready and equipped with everything on with exception of the head protector. They should be in the vicinity of their allocated ring ready for their third and last call. Once the result is called in the previous fight the third and last call will be announced for the fighters to attend their ring which they must do immediately. Failure to enter the ring on the last call fully equipped and ready to fight with head gear on will result in automatic disqualification The rounds are two minutes long to encourage participants to pace themselves, due to the less protection they will also have to carefully pick their shots whilst remembering that only clean shots win points. This is set out to prevent fighters standing toe to toe and stick bashing unnecessarily and encourages the fighters to use more footwork, evasion, blocking, countering, short and long ranges and general ring craft. This does not mean they cannot mix it up with a combination of attacks to help overwhelm or tire their opponent, as we understand this can also aid and benefit a fighters style and can also lead to an earlier five point win thus occasionally resulting in a faster completion of the round which may help some competitors to preserve more energy for the following rounds, however more often than not the rounds do last the entire two minutes, so be warned it is not as easy as it sounds and competitors could very quickly lose points with this method too. Good judgment is required throughout and it will quickly be seen that it is an intense skill based sporting format which suits long and close range fighters equally. Strikes may not be performed more than twice consecutively to the same area, this must be broken up with other combinations of striking or defensive techniques, once the fighter has applied a different strike or defensive technique they may return to a previously used striking point. We want fighters to use various combinations that will display their style in a better light. For example block, hit, block hit with the same two techniques is considered a combination and is perfectly legal, but three identical strikes to the same target area without the use of any other techniques will not be scored effectively, only the first two strikes will count. We also want to see that the stick and/or players should be live (moving) at all times even when exchanges are not being made by either player, this is to discourage a stalemate and to keep this spectator friendly and entertaining for the audience. Head shots will gain some precedence as a killer blow/clean shot even if for instance; an exchanging blow manages to hit the body or legs at the same time as the other opponent hits the head. This is to ensure that fighters do not sacrifice their head whilst taking advantage of the head protector and attempting continuous damaging blows to the opponents legs simply to weaken them for a later stage in the bout, we suggest fighters do this at their own peril as many styles/judges consider this bad form within the art and we therefore encourage that competitors protect

their heads at all times and also know that the referee may warn and/or deduct points for constant deliberate sacrificial blows/ techniques which also applies to individuals who constantly do not attempt any form of defense during an opponent s attack. If at the end of the round neither opponent has achieved five points then the highest scorer wins the round. If it is a draw then there is a sudden death situation where both fighters return to the starting position in the centre of the ring for the referee to restart the two opponents and it is the first to obtain one clean shot that wins the round that had initially ended with a draw. Fighters are not allowed to remove any protective equipment in between rounds without prior consent of the acting referee. The fighters may lift the head protectors up to their forehead in between rounds to enable them to take liquids and cool down between rounds, but may not remove the head protector entirely or undo any straps or fasteners without prior consent of the acting referee. When the referee announces ten seconds to go the fighters must replace their head protectors and immediately approach the centre of the ring. Rests between rounds will be a maximum of one minute on completion of a two minute time lapse, but should any round be considerably shorter than the two minutes allocated for the round, it will be at the referee's discretion to start the following round sooner if they so wish. However for the children's sparring divisions the one minute rest time will be mandatory. Once a final result is decided following the three or five rounds, the referee will instruct both fighters to remove their head protection after which he will announce the winner of that particular bout.

HOW IT IS SCORED Disarms In the event of a disarm, the referee will stop the fight and address the judges and will instruct the
scorekeeper to deduct one point immediately from the disarmed player's current score for that round in play and to add it to the records for that fight. The referee will then return the weapon to the fighter and continue the round. If three disarms are received by any one player spread over any bout of three rounds the fight ends immediately and is classed as a technical knock-out (TKO), so if all three disarms are achieved in the first round the entire fight is over. There is a two second rule on disarms, that they must be executed immediately in a clean fashion. In other words avoid falling into a tug of war or arm-breaking situation. Keep them short, sharp and clean.

Scoring & Fouls Scoring is accomplished using a flag system. The three judges will each have a red and a blue flag which on sight of a clean shot they will raise the relevant red or blue flag indicating the player performing the clean strike, at least two of the three corner judges must raise the same colored flag within a second of each other for the point to be awarded to the relevant fighter. The scorekeeper will then indicate on the scoreboard the winning point instantly so all members of the audience and even the fighters can see the progress of the fight in real-time. The scorekeeper will keep record of round scores and disarms/warnings and deductions. The adjudicator will ensure there is no copycat behavior from the judges and has the power to remove judges at any point during a bout if deemed necessary and can restart the entire fight from scratch. It is the adjudicator s role to nominate judges and to ensure fair judging is upheld throughout the tournament.
Illegal techniques are as follows: Kicking, Punching, pushing, pulling, elbowing, kneeing, head butting, wrestling, joint breaking techniques, foot sweeping, stepping out of the fight area, butt striking, thrusting to head/neck, double handed strikes (excluding long stick division), non-responsive tactics/stalemates, swearing, abusive or aggressive behavior by competitor or corner staff towards any competitors or members of the officiating team. Warnings will be issued in a clear fashion of first warning advising the infringement, the secondwarning will advise the implications of continuous infringement of the rules and on third warning theplayer will incur a one point deduction immediately from their current score for that round in play. Atotal of three point deductions over any whole individual bout for fowls (separate to disarm) will result in an immediate disqualification. The Referee on consultation and agreement with the ring adjudicator has the power to issue immediate point deduction and/or disqualification without warning in extreme circumstances depending on the severity of the foul or behavior. The ring adjudicator however, has absolute power to remove any judge, referee, official, fighter or team from a bout or the entire event without warning but will provide good reason and explanation of any action taken to the audience and all parties concerned. If a fighter or their corner staff have any concerns regarding any officials or participants before a bout, the fighter must stay in the ring and only the head coach or team manager may approach the ring adjudicator with their concerns. The same rule applies for any objections or disputes after a bout is completed, the moment the fighter leaves the ring they accept any decision that has been made. If for any valid reason you feel the judges or referee should be replaced, this matter must be taken up with the ring adjudicator (as per the above process) before the bout begins and it is the responsibility of the ring adjudicator to decide whether or not a replacement is required and if so replacements will only be made once for that particular bout and the adjudicators choice of replacement official(s) is final. No second replacements will be made in the same bout. Any serious objection raised with the ring adjudicator may be addressed to the tournament director where both parties will then consult with all officials concerned and determine a decision regarding the matter, the tournament directors decision is however final. In the event of any fouls or disarms the timekeeper will stop the clock until the referee instructs the round to re-start.
Etymology of Name For all intents and purposes, Eskrima, arnis and kali all refer to the same family of Filipino weapon-based martial arts. In Luzon they may go by the name of arnis, arnis de mano, sinawali, pagkalikali,panandata (usage of weapons), didya, kabaroan (blade usage) and kaliradman. In the Visayas and Mindanao, these martial arts have been referred to as eskrima, kali and kalirongan. Kuntaw and silatare separate martial arts that have been practiced in the islands. Both eskrima and arnis are loans from Spanish and ultimately from Old Frankish:
[2][3]

 

Eskrima is a Filipinization of the Spanish word for fencing (esgrima).

Arnis comes from arnes, Old Spanish for armor (harness is an archaic English term for armor which comes from the same roots as the Spanish term). It is derived from the armor costumes used inMoro-moro stage plays where actors fought mock battles using wooden swords. Allegedly,

the practice of weaponry by the peasants or Indios was banned by the Spaniards during colonial times and the Moro-moro stick fights were a [4] "disguised" form of continued practice of indigenous martial arts. The name Kali is primarily used in the United States and Europe, and seldom in the Visayas, in some cases being an unknown word to eskrima practitioners. The term is used mostly in Mindanao, but due to the popularity of the term outside of the Philippines and the influence of foreign practitioners the term has now been accepted as a synonym for eskrima and arnis. In their Cebu Eskrima Mythdistributed by Lex libris, Dr. Ned Nepangue and Tinni Macahor contend that the word did not exist until the 1960s when two well-known eskrimadors in the United States popularized it [5] to distinguish what they taught from other styles. One belief is that the word comes from tjakalele, a tribal style of stick-fencing from Indonesia. This is supported by the similarities between tjakalele and eskrima techniques, as well as Mindanao's proximity to Indonesia. Numerous alternative theories attempt to explain the term's origin:

   

It could have come from the Baybayin word kalepo or kalibo ("kali sports" or panlarong kali). This suggests that Kalibo's name may have [citation needed] originated from the word "kali" because there are many eskrima schools in Kalibo today. Kali may be a portmanteau of the Cebuano words "ka"mot, or "ka"may meaning hand or body, and "li"hok, meaning motion.
[6]

It might be traced back to the word for scales (kaliskis) because Cebuano warriors from the 8th and 9th centuries wore scale armour before [citation needed] bronze and copper armour were introduced in the 10th century. There exist numerous similar terms of reference for martial arts such as kalirongan, kaliradman and pagkalikali. These may be the origin of the [5] term kali or they may have evolved from it.

Practitioners of the arts are called eskrimador for those who call their art Eskrima, arnisador for those who call theirs Arnis and kalista or mangangali for those who practice Kali. [edit]Origins When the Spaniards began colonizing the Philippines, they saw an already-developed weapons-based martial arts practiced by the natives. The name Eskrima came from the Spanish word for "fencing" (i.e., any form of hand-to-hand combat with bladed weapons). After the decree prohibiting the native to carry full-sized swords (such as the Kris and the Kampilan), the Maharlika (the ancient nobility class) [citation needed] To circumvent the decree, some practitioners used sticks made out of rattan rather than swords, as well as small knives preserved the art. [7] wielded like a sword. Eskrima can be traced back from Tom Pires' Suma Oriental to Lapu-lapu. As eskrima is an art for the common folk, most practitioners lacked the scholarly education to create any kind of written record. While the same can be said of many martial arts, this is especially true for eskrima because almost all of its history is anecdotal, oral or promotional. The origin of eskrima can be traced back to the fighting systems used by Filipinos during inter-tribal warfare. Settlers and traders travelling through the Malay Archipelago [8][9] Some of the population still practices localised Chinese fighting methods brought the influence of silat as well as Chinese and Indian martial arts. known as kuntaw. Among the earliest written records of Filipino martial arts comes from the Spanish conquistadors who fought native tribesmen armed with sticks and [10] [10] knives. Driven back to their ships, the European colonists had to resort to fire-arms to defeat the Filipinos. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan was killed in Cebu at the Battle of Mactan by the forces of Raja Lapu-Lapu, the Mactan tribal chief. Although eskrimadors hold that Lapu-Lapu killed Magellan in a sword-fight, the only eyewitness account of the battle by chronicler Antonio Pigafetta tells that he was stabbed in the face and the arm with spears and overwhelmed with multiple warriors who hacked and stabbed at him: The natives continued to pursue us, and picking up the same spear four or six times, hurled it at us again and again. Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice, but he always stood firmly like a good knight, together with some others. Thus did we fight for more than one hour, refusing to retire farther. An Indian hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the Indian's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to [11] the boats, which were already pulling off. The last part from Pigafetta's account is rather comical considering the amount of mortal injuries Magellan received, so it is generally accepted that the account was made with some coloring and embelishments by Pigafetta to make Magellan sound more impressive. Sources differ on the degree to which Eskrima was affected by the Spanish colonization. The fact that many Eskrima techniques have Spanish names adds fuel to the debate, but this can be explained as Spanish was the lingua franca of the Philippines until the early 20th century. Some theorize that there were groups of conquistadors and Jesuit warrior-priests who taught the Indios how to defend themselves against Moro raiders. Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit order was a veteran knight and soldier and many Jesuits knew how to defend themselves as they were generally dispatched into the most dangerous areas by the Pope. One of the apparent influences from Spanish styles is the espada y daga (sword and dagger) method, but some disagree as Filipino espada y daga appears to be distinct from European rapier and dagger techniques; the stances are different as [12] weapons used in Eskrima are typically shorter than European swords. One thing that is known is that some of the arts were hidden from the Spaniards and passed down through familial or communal ties, usually practiced under the moonlight or right under the Spaniards noses by disguising them as entertainment like with choreographed dances such as the Sakuting stick dance (see Youtube videos) or during mock battles at Moro-moro (Moros y Cristianos) stage plays. Due to the way the arts were then clandestinely practiced, one apparent effect of Spanish subjugation and disarmament of the civilian population was the evolution of unique and complex stick-based techniques in the Visayas and Luzon regions (unlike Southern Mindanao which retains almost exclusively blade-oriented [13] techniques as it was never fully conquered and disarmed by the Spaniards and Americans). Although the turbulent and conflict-fraught history and environment of the Philippines enabled eskrima to develop into an efficient art, this has changed in the sense that some systematization allowed easier and quicker teaching of the basics. With the exception of a few older and more established systems, it was previously common to pass the art from generation to generation in an informal approach. This has made attempts to trace the lineage of a practitioner difficult. For example, Antonio Illustrisimo seemed to have learned to fight while sailing around the Philippines, while his nephew and student Floro Villabrille claimed to have been taught by a blind Moro princess in the mountains - a claim later refuted by the older Illustrisimo. Both have since died. [edit]Modern history

The Philippines has what is known as a blade culture. Local folk in the Philippines are much more likely to carry knives than guns. They are commonly carried as tools by farmers, used by street vendors to prepare coconuts, pineapples, other fruits and meats, and balisongs are cheap to procure in the streets as well as being easily concealed. Thus, they are much more used when tempers rise than by people in North America or Europe. In fact, in the language of Palau, the term for Filipino is chad ra oles which literally means "people of the knife" because of Filipinos' reputation for carrying knives [14] and using them in fights. As a result, blade fighting is still very much a living skill in the Philippines, particularly in rural areas. Americans were first exposed to eskrima during the Philippine-American War in events such as the Balangiga Massacre where most of an American company was hacked to death or seriously injured by bolo-wielding guerillas in Balangiga, Samar or in battles in Mindanao where an American serviceman was decapitated by a Moro warrior even after he emptied his entire magazine of .38 Long Colt .38 caliber bullets into his opponent. That and similar events led to the request and development of the .45 ACP which had more stopping power. With regards to its spread outside the Philippines, the teaching of eskrima was kept strictly within the Filipino community until the late 1960s when it was brought to the US by masters such as Angel Cabales. Even then, instructors teaching eskrima in the 1960s and 70s were often reprimanded by their elders for publicly teaching a part of their culture that had been preserved through secrecy. In recent years, there has been increased interest in eskrima for its usefulness when defending against knives. As a result, many systems of eskrima have been modified in varying degrees to make them more marketable to a worldwide audience. Usually this involves increased emphasis on locking, controls, and disarms, focusing mainly on aspects of self-defense. However, most styles follow the philosophy that the best defense is a good offense rather than relying only on defense. Modern training methods tend to de-emphasize careful footwork and low stances, stressing the learning of techniques as opposed to more direct (and often lethal) tactics designed to instantly end an encounter. Today it is taught to the Filipino military as well as American groups like Navy SEALs, Army Special Forces, Delta Force as well as the Russian [15] Spetsnaz (special forces). [edit]Duels One of the most important practices in classical eskrima was dueling, without any form of protection. The matches were preceded by cock-fighting and could be held in any open space, sometimes in a specially constructed enclosure. Eskrimadors believe this tradition pre-dates the colonial period, pointing to similar practices of kickboxing matches in mainland Indochina as evidence. Spanish records tell of such duelling areas where cock-fights took place. The founders of most of the popular eskrima systems were famous duelists and legends circulate about how many opponents they killed. In rural areas throughout the Philippines today, modern eskrima matches are still held in dueling arenas. In bigger cities, recreations of duels are sometimes held at parks by local eskrima training-halls. These demonstrations are not choreographed beforehand but neither are they full-contact competitions. In modern times, public dueling has been deemed illegal in the Philippines to reduce legal problems that arose from injury or death. [edit]Organization After decades of lobbying and overdue recognition, Arnis/Eskrima/Kali was proclaimed as the official National Martial Art and Sport of the Philippines in January 2010. There are 2 main types of Eskrima practiced as a sport. The oldest and most common system used internationally is that of the WEKAF (World Eskrima Kali Arnis Federation). The younger one which is promoted by the Philippine Sports Commission and the government is the Arnis Philippines (ARPHI) system and was used during the 2005 Southeast Asian Games. [edit]WEKAF The WEKAF system works on a 10-point must system similar to boxing where participants spar with live sticks while wearing a long padded vest with skirt and sleeves and a helmet similar to Kendoheadgear. Hitting below the belt is prohibited. This format has sometimes been criticized because it emphasizes a heavy offense at the expense of defensive techniques sometimes with players raining blows on each other without defending, giving rise to the impression that combatants are merely hitting each other in a disorganized way. This is, to some, an antithesis to traditional training methods, where training in footwork and arm/weapon movements are intricate and precise and any part of an opponent's body is fair game. As a consequence, WEKAF tournaments may be seen as not promoting the original art. Moreover, participants have been known to suffer broken bones and injured tendons due to the fact that live sticks are used, so the older system is considered to be morehardcore and less safe. Another complaint about the WEKAF system is that it uses the 10-point must system which is more subjective depending on who is judging. Favoritism among judges and players is a common complaint with this scoring system due to its subjectivity. Since the WEKAF system is more risky, it is preferred by many practitioners who want to test themselves. The WEKAF system is the most widely used format internationally. [edit]ARPHI The Arnis Philippines system uses foam-padded sticks about an inch in diameter with thin rattan cores roughly a centimeter in diameter. These sticks are meant to break before serious injury occurs. For protection, the same headgear used in the WEKAF system, and a large groin guard is required for males. Vests (optional for men, required for women), optional armguards, shinguards and leg wraps are used. Scoring is more similar to fencing were fighters are separated after solid clean hits are made (observed by multiple judges stationed at different positions to be able to observe if the hits were clean and unblocked and able to determine the strength of the strike by the loudness of the impact). Alternative ways to score are to disarm one's opponent or to force him to step outside the ring. The entire body from head to toe is fair game as targets, except for the back of the head which is less protected by the headgear. Stabs to the face are not allowed because the thin rattan core may penetrate the padding and slip through the grills of the headgear and go into the player's eye. Thrusts to the body score points but are harder to sell to judges because they make less noise and it is harder to determine the magnitude of their impact. Punches, kicks and throws are not allowed. Nor is prolonged clinching to prevent the opponent from striking (similar to Western Boxing) in order to keep the game moving and more interesting for the audience who may not appreciate the fine and practical aspects of grappling. Disarms must be performed quickly and cleanly in order to be counted. Because the legs are legal targets, in lighter weight divisions, complex evasion and deep lunges where players lie horizontal with the torso almost touching the floor to extend reach are often seen. The emphasis of the ARPHI system is on safety for the players as it is applying to become a recognized Olympic sport similar to other martial arts like Judo, Karate, Tae Kwon Do, Wrestling, Boxing, and Fencing. Even though padded sticks are used in the sport, players regularly retain large bruises that last for weeks and sometimes minor injuries to joints and because of the sheer amount of force generated by conditioned practitioners. Sometimes the stuffing commonly comes off from the harder hitting players and one cause of injury is when a player is struck by the exposed rattan core. Still, these are relatively minor as compared to injuries sustained when practitioners spar with live sticks.

One major problem with the ARPHI system is that because the padded sticks with light rattan cores are used, they tend to flex and "lag", thus making the experience significantly different from using a live stick and in that sense, lessens the "realism" of this system. This is acceptable though as again, emphasis is on the safety of the players. Like the sayaw (meaning dance) in the WEKAF system, the ARPHI system has a separate single and team choreographed Kata-like division called Ao (Tagalog for forms). Aside from the visual appeal, practical combative applications must be clearly seen so as to avoid looking like just majorettes in marching bands who just twirl batons and dance (a concept similar to the Floreio ("flowery") aspect in the Brazilian martial art Capoeira and Tricking which are more for show than practicality). [edit]Others In another variation that simulates knife fights, competitors use false blades edged with lipstick to mark where an opponent has been struck. These matches are considered more similar to traditional duels than the WEKAF point-system. [edit]Weapons Eskrima students start their instruction by learning to fight with weapons, and only advance to empty-hand training once the stick and knife techniques have been sufficiently mastered. This is in contrast to most other well-known Asian martial arts but it is justified by the principle that bare-handed moves are acquired naturally through the same exercises as the weapon techniques, making muscle memory an important aspect of the teaching and the obvious fact that an armed person who is trained has the advantage over a trained unarmed person and to condition students to fight against armed assailants. Most systems of eskrima apply a single set of techniques for the stick, knife and empty hands, a concept sometimes referred to as motion grouping. Since the weapon is seen as simply an extension of the body, the same angles and footwork are used either with or without a weapon. The reason for this is probably historical, because tribal warriors went into battle armed and only resorted to bare-handed fighting after losing their weapons. Many systems begin training with two weapons, either a pair of sticks or a stick and a wooden knife. These styles emphasise keeping both hands full and never moving them in the same direction and trains practitioners to become ambidextrous. For example, one stick may strike the head while the other hits the arm. Such training develops the ability to use both limbs independently, a skill which is valuable even when working with one weapon. A core concept and distinct feature of Filipino martial arts is the Live Hand. Even when as a practitioner wields only one weapon, the extra hand is used to control, trap or disarm an opponent's weapon and to aid in blocking, joint locking and manipulation of the opponent or other simultaneous motions such as biceps destruction with the live hand. [edit]Sticks A pair of rattan sticks The most basic and common weapon in eskrima is the baston (Spanish for "stick) or yantok. They are typically constructed from rattan, an inexpensive stem from a type of Southeast Asian vine. Hard and durable yet lightweight, it shreds only under the worst abuse and will not splinter as easily as other woods, making it a safe training tool. This aspect makes it useful in defence against blades. Kamagong (ironwood or ebony) and bahi (heart of the palm) are sometimes used after being charred and hardened. These hardwoods are generally not used for sparring, however, as they are dense enough to cause serious injury, but traditional sparring does not include weapon to body contact. The participants are skilled enough to parry and counterstrike, showing respect in not intentionally hitting the training partner. In North America and Europe, eskrima practitioners wear head and hand protection while sparring with rattan sticks, or otherwise use padded batons. Some modern schools use sticks made out of aluminium or other metals, or modern high-impact plastics. [edit]Impact weapons

Improvised weapons like pens, car keys (using the push knife grip), cellular phones, flashlights, coffee mugs, umbrellas, rolled-up magazines & newspapers, books, tennis rackets, bottles, chair legs, etc. [edit]Edged weapons Baraw is a Cebuano term used in the art of Eskrima that means knife or dagger. The term Baraw is more commonly used on the Cebu Island in the Visayan region where as other islands and regions more commonly use the term Daga but both terms are often interchangeable within the Filipino martial arts community. The terms Baraw and Daga can be used either as Solo Baraw or Solo Daga associated with single knife fighting and defence systems, Doble Baraw or Doble Daga associated with the double knife fighting systems or even with a combination of long and short weapons e.g. stick and dagger fighting systems Olisi Baraw or sword and dagger fighting systems Espada y Daga.

      

Yantok, olisi, baston: stick ranging from twenty-four to twenty-eight inches long. Largo mano yantok: longer stick ranging from twenty-eight to thirty-six inches Dulo y dulo: short stick about four to seven inches in length, held in the palm of the hand Bankaw: six-foot pole. Staves can be used to practice sword techniques Wooden dagger measuring 12 to 14 inches (300 to 360 mm) Panangga: shield

      

Daga/Cuchillo/Baraw: daggers or knives of different shapes and sizes Balisong: fan knife or butterfly knife from Barrio Balisong in Batangas province. The handle is two-piece and attaches to a swivel that folds to enclose the blade when shut. Karambit: claw-shaped Indo-Malay blade held by inserting the finger into a hole at the top of the handle. Bolo: a common farm tool similar to a machete Pinuti: a type of bolo from Cebu Sundang: a sword created by the Bugis people of Indonesia. Its blade is usually wavy. Barang: flat-headed blade

     

Binikoko: long blade named after a porgy fish Dinahong palay: blade named after a type of poisonous snake Kalis or Kris: Indo-Malay dagger, often given a wavy blade, it is most commonly used in the southern provinces Kampilan: fork-tipped sword, popular in the southern Philippines Sibat: spear

Improvised: Icepicks, box cutters, screwdrivers, broken bottles [edit]Flexible weapons

   

Sarong: a length of fabric wrapped around the waist Ecut: handkerchief Tabak-toyok: chained sticks or nunchaku Whip consisting of a handle between 8 and 12 inches (200 and 300 mm), and a lash composed of a braided thong 320 ft (0.916.1 m) long. The [16] "fall" at the end of the lash is a single piece of leather 1030 inches (250760 mm) in length.

 Improvised: Belt, bandana, handkerchiefs, shirts, towels with hard soap bars, ropes, power cables, etc. [edit]Technical aspects
[edit]Ranges Most systems recognize that the technical nature of combat changes drastically as the distance between opponents changes, and generally classify the ranges into at least three categories. Each range has its characteristic techniques and footwork. Of course, some systems place more emphasis on certain ranges than others, but almost all recognize that being able to work in and control any range is essential. The Balintawak style for example, uses long-distance, medium-range and short-range fighting techniques, but focuses more on the short range. In order to control the range, and for numerous other purposes, good footwork is essential. Most eskrima systems explain their footwork in terms of triangles: normally when moving in any direction two feet occupy two corners of the triangle and the step is to the third corner such that no leg crosses the other at any time. The shape and size of the triangle must be adapted to the particular situation. The style of footwork and the standing position vary greatly from school to school and from practitioner to practitioner. For a very traditional school, very conscious of battlefield necessities, stances will usually be very low, often with one knee on the ground, and footwork will be complex, involving many careful cross-steps to allow practitioners to cope with multiple opponents. The Villabrille and San Miguel styles are usually taught in this way. Systems that have been adapted to duels or sporting matches generally employ simpler footwork, focusing on a single opponent. North American schools tend to use much more upright stances, as this puts less stress on the legs, but there are some exceptions. [edit]Strikes Many Filipino systems focus on defending against and/or reacting to angles of attack rather than particular strikes. The theory behind this is that virtually all types of hand-to-hand attacks (barehanded or with a weapon) will hit or reach a combatant via these angles of attack and it is reasoned that it is more efficient to learn to defend against different angles of attack rather than learning to defend against particular styles, particular techniques or particular weapons. For instance, the technique for defending against an attack angle that comes overhead from the right is very similar whether the attacker uses barefists, a knife, a sword or a spear. Older styles gave each angle a name, but more recent systems tend to simply number them. Many systems have twelve standard angles, though some have as few as 5, and others as many as 72. Although the exact angles, the order in which they are numbered (numerado), and the manner in which they're executed vary from system to system, most are based upon Filipino cosmology. These standard angles are used to describe exercises; to aid memorization, a standard series of strikes from these angles called an abecedario (Spanish for "alphabet") is often practiced. These are beginner strikes or the "ABC's" of eskrima. Some angles of attack and some strikes have characteristic names.

San Miguel is a forehand strike with the right hand, moving from the striker's right shoulder toward their left hip. It is named after Saint Michael or the Archangel Michael, who is often depicted holding a sword at this angle. This is the most natural strike for most untrained people. It is commonly referred to as "angle #1," in systems where striking angles are numbered for training purposes, because it is presumed to be the most probable angle of attack. Sinawali is the signature double-stick weaving movement associated with Arnis and Eskrima named after the woven coconut or palm leaves called sawali that comprise the walls of nipa hutdwellings. It is commonly seen in double-stick continuous attack-parry partner demonstrations. Another signature technique is the Redonda which is a continuous circular downward-striking double-stick twirling technique. A redondo (Spanish for "round") is a strike that whips in a circle to return to its point of origin. This is especially useful when using sticks rather than swords, such a strike allows extremely fast strikes but needs constant practice. An abanico (Spanish for fan) or witik is a strike that is executed by flicking the wrist 180 degrees in a fan-shaped motion. This kind of strike can be very quick and arrive from unexpected angles. Pilantik is a strike executed by whipping the stick around the wrist over the head in a motion similar to the abanico, but in alternating 360 degree strikes. It is most useful when fighters are in grappling range and cannot create enough space for normal strikes. Hakbang (Filipino for "step") is a general term for footwork. For example, hakbang paiwas is pivoting footwork, while hakbang tatsulok is triangle stepping. Puo (Spanish for "fist") is a strike delivered with the butt of the weapon. It usually targets a nerve point or other soft spot on the opponent but in skilled hands, the puo can be used to shatter bones.

      

It is to be noted that many of the Eskrima techniques have Spanish names because Spanish was the lingua franca spoken during colonial times among the natives who spoke over 170 different languages in the archipelago's 7,100+ islands. Eskrima techniques are generally based on the assumption that both the student and their opponent are very highly trained and well prepared. For this reason, eskrima tends to favor extreme caution, always considering the possibility of a failed technique or an unexpected knife. On the other hand, the practitioner is assumed to be able to strike very precisely and quickly. The general principle is that an opponent's ability to attack should be destroyed

rather than trying to hurt them to convince them to stop. Thus many strikes are aimed at the hands and arms, hoping to break the hand holding the weapon or cut the nerves or tendons controlling it (the concept of defanging the snake), but strikes to the eyes and legs are important. A popular mnemonic states that "stick seeks bone, blade seeks flesh". [edit]Mano Mano Mano Mano is the empty-hand component of Filipino martial arts, particularly eskrima. The term translates as "hands" or "hand to hand" and comes from the Spanish word mano (hand). It is known aspanantukan in Luzon and pangamot in the Visayas. American colonists referred to it as "combat judo". Mano mano includes kicking, punching, locking, throwing and dumog (grappling). Filipino martial artists regard the empty hands as another weapon and all the movements of mano mano are directly based on weapon techniques. In eskrima, weapons are seen as an extension of the body so training with weapons naturally leads to proficiency in bare-handed combat. For this reason, mano mano is generally taught in the higher levels of eskrima because advanced students are expected to be able to apply their experience with weapons to unarmed fighting. [edit]Pananjakman Pananjakman is a component of eskrima which focuses on low-line kicks. Some claim that pananjakman is an art in and of itself but this separation was probably made for the purpose of marketing the art as a new system. Pananjakman is never taught by itself in the Philippines, and this practice is only done in the West. Pananjakman can be regarded as the study of leg muscles and bones and how they are connected, with the goal of either inflicting pain or outright breaking or dislocating the bones. Most striking techniques involve applying pressure to bend the target areas in unnatural ways so as to injure or break them. Such pressure may be delivered in the form of a heel smash, a toe kick, a stomp, or a knee. Targets include the groin, thighs, knees, shins, ankles, feet and toes. The upper body is used only for defensive maneuvres, making pananjakman ideal for when combatants are engaged in a clinch. When used effectively, the strikes can bring an opponent to the ground or otherwise end an altercation by making them too weak to stand. Fundamental techniques include kicking or smashing the ankle to force it either towards or away from the opposite foot (severe supination or pronation, respectively), heel-stomping the top of the foot where it meets the lower leg so as to break or crush the numerous bones or otherwise disrupt the opponent's balance, and smashing the opponents knee from the side to break the knee (with severe supination and pronation as the desired result). [edit]Drills Several classes of exercises, such as sumbrada, contrada, sinawali, hubud-lubud and sequidas, initially presented to the public as a set of organized drills by the Inosanto school, are expressly designed to allow partners to move quickly and experiment with variations while remaining safe. For example, in a sumbrada drill taken from the Villabrille style, one partner feeds an attack, which the other counters, flowing into a counterattack, which is then countered, flowing into a counterattack, and so on. The hubud-lubud or hubad-lubad from Doce Pares is frequently used as a type of "generator" drill, where one is forced to act and think fast. Initially, students learn a specific series of attacks, counters, and counter-attacks. As they advance they can add minor variations, change the footwork, or switch to completely different attacks; eventually the exercise becomes almost completely free-form. Palakat, from the Balintawak style, are un-choreographed and random defensive and offensive moves. Palakat in Cebuano means a walk-through or rehearsing the different strike angles and defenses. It may be known as corridas or striking without any order or pattern. Disarms, take-downs, and other techniques usually break the flow of such a drill, but they are usually initiated from such a sequence of movements in order to force the student to adapt to a variety of situations. A common practice is to begin a drill with each student armed with two weapons; once the drill is flowing, if a student sees an opportunity to disarm their opponent, they will, but the drill will continue until both students are empty-handed. Some drills use only a single weapon per pair, and the partners take turns disarming each other. Seguidas drills, taken from the San Miguel system, are sets of hitting and movement patterns usually involving stick and dagger. Rhythm, while an essential part of eskrima drills, is given more emphasis in the United States and Europe where a regular beat serves a guide for students to follow. To ensure the safety of the participants, most drills are done at a constant pace which is increased as the students progress. The rhythm, together with the southern Filipino attire of a vest and sashed pants, is commonly mistaken to be some sort of tradition when practicing eskrima in the Philippines - perhaps incorrectly derived from traditional rhythm-based dances or an attempt to add a sense of ethnicity. Eskrima is usually practiced in the Philippines without a rhythm, off-beat or out of rhythm. Although the art existed long before the European colonisation, it has been named after Spanish fencing (esgrima). Filipino eskrimadors typically train in their everyday clothes. The more affluent and modernized city practitioners and foreigners practice while wearing either their studio uniform, an altered form of the Japanese gi or 3/4 length pants. However, the diversity of Filipino martial arts means that there is no officially established standard uniform in eskrima. [edit]The Live Hand The live hand is the opposite hand of the practitioner that does not contain the main weapon. The heavy usage of the live hand is an important concept and distinguishing hallmark of Eskrima. Even (or especially) when empty, the live hand can be used as a companion weapon by Eskrima practitioners. As opposed to most weapon systems like fencing where the off-hand is hidden and not used to prevent it from being hit, Eskrima actively uses the live hand for trapping, locking, supporting weapon blocks, checking, disarming, striking and controlling the opponent. The usage of the live hand is one of the most evident examples of how Eskrima's method of starting with weapons training leads to effective empty hand techniques. Because of Doble Baston (double weapons) or Espada y Daga (sword and parrying dagger) ambidextrous weapon muscle memory conditioning, Eskrima practitioners find it easy to use the off-hand actively once they transition from using it with a weapon to an empty hand. [edit]Doble baston Doble baston, and less frequently doble olisi, are common names for a group of techniques involving two sticks. The art is more commonly known around the world as Sinawali meaning "to weave". The term Sinawali was taken from a matting that is commonly used in the tribal Nipa Huts which is made up of woven pieces of palm leaf and used for both flooring and walls. This technique requires the user to use both left and right weapons in an equal manner; many co-ordination drills are used to help the practitioner become more ambidextrous. It is the section of the art that is taught mainly at the intermediate levels and above and is considered one of the most important areas of learning in the art. [edit]Sinawali Sinawali refers to the activity of "weaving", as applied Eskrima with reference to a set of two-person, two-weapon exercises. Sinawali exercises provide Eskrima practitioners with basic skills and motions relevant to a mode of two-weapon blocking and response method called Doblete. Sinawali training is often introduced to novices in order to develop certain fundamental skills including: body positioning and distance relative to an opponent, rotation of the body and the proper turning radius, recognition of ones center of gravity, eyehand coordination, target perception and recognition, increased ambidexterity, recognition and performance of rhythmic structures for upper body movement, and muscular

developments important to the art, especially, the wrist and forearm regions. It helps teach the novice eskrimador proper elbow positioning while swinging a weapon. [edit]Cross-training The Chinese and Malay communities of the Philippines have practiced Eskrima together with Kuntaw and Silat for centuries, so much so that many North Americans mistakenly believe silat to have originated in the Philippines. Some of the modern styles, particularly Doce Pares and Modern Arnis contain elements of Japanese martial arts such as Judo and Karate as some of the founders were blackbelters in these systems. Eskrima is complementary with Aikido because of the rounded nature of the conditioning and body mechanics when twirling or swinging sticks. In Western countries, it is common for Eskrima to be practiced in conjunction with other martial arts, particularly Wing Chun, Jeet Kune Do or Silat. As a result, there is some confusion between styles, systems and lineage because some people cross-train without giving due credit to the founders or principles of their arts. For example, American Kenpo cross-training traces back to the interactions between Chinese, Japanese and Filipino immigrants in territorial/pre-statehood Hawaii, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the United States. Another one is the cross-training between Eskrima and Wing Chun or Jeet Kune Do which dates back to Bruce Lee's close collaboration with Dan Inosanto (the weapons aspect of Jeet Kune Do comes primarily from Eskrima and Bruce Lee considered it as the martial art which had the closest philosophy to JKD). Proponents of such training say the arts are very similar in many aspects and complement each other well. It has become marketable to offer Eskrima classes in other traditional Asian martial arts studios in America but some practitioners of other Eskrima styles often dismiss these lessons as debased versions of original training methods. [edit]Notable Styles [edit]Practiced in the Philippines (arranged by family/lineage)

                       

Doce Pares Eskrima - Originally encompassed 12 styles and was founded by the Saavedra and Caete families in 1932. There are now several Doce Pares groups headed by various members of the Caete family. Eskrido - Founded by Ciriaco "Cacoy" Caete, the last living founder and the highest ranking master of Doce Pares Eskrima San Miguel Eskrima - As one of the founders (together with the famous Doring and Ensong Saavedra) of the Labangon Fencing Club in 1920 and later the Doce Pares Club in 1932, Filemon "Momoy" Caete created the blade based San Miguel Eskrima as his personal expression of the Doce Pares art and methodology. Mig-Sune-Do Eskrima De San Miguel founded by Alberto D. Dacayana Sr, senior student of Momoy Caete Dacayana Eskrima System - Founded by Alberto Dacayana Jr from the Dalmacio style of his mother's side and the Mig-Sune-Do style of his father. Balintawak Eskrima - Founded in 1952 by Venancio "Anciong" Bacon after internal dispute amongst some of the original founders of the original Doce Pares club. Villasin Balintawak - founded by Atty. Jose Villasin, one of Bacon's senior students International Balintawak - founded by Bobby Taboada, one of Bacon's senior students Liborio Heyrosa Eskrima De Cuerdas - founded by Liborio "Tiboring" Heyrosa, student of Anciong Bacon and "Ingko Nene" Rosales Nickel Stick Eskrima - founded by Nick Elizar, student of Anciong Bacon and the other senior Balintawak pioneers Tabimina Balintawak - founded by Bob Silver Tabimina, one of Anciong Bacon's last major students and inheritor of Bacon's style that was modified by his stay in prison before his death Black Eagle Eskrima - founded by World War II guerilla fighter Carlos Navarro based on the Eskrima de Llave of his grandfather, the Eskrima de Avinico of his father and other Cebuano systems. Tres Personas Eskrima de Combate Super Kuwentada System Founded by Police Maj. Timoteo "Timor" Maranga Sr., a fearless World War II guerilla fighter and member of the legendary Bolo Battalion. The system which is currently known as Eskrima Maranga System is characterized by its lightning speed strikes and disarming. Combate Eskrima Maranga (CEM) continues to advance with the founder's son Rodrigo Maranga. Modern Arnis - Founded by Remy Presas which has its roots in the Presas family and Balintawak system. It is revolutionary for having pioneered a system that made teaching of Arnis easier for students as old-school systems were often very painful for the student, thus making it hard to attract students and keep the arts alive. Kombatan - founded by Ernesto Presas, brother of Remy Presas. Hinigaran Arnis de Mano - founded by Remy and Ernie Presas's youngest brother, Roberto Presas Arnis Cruzada - Founded by Jeremias de la Cruz based on his family system from Pampanga and Modern Arnis. De la Cruz is the highest [17] ranking Grand Master in the Modern Arnis system alive today. Dagooc Style - founded by Rodel Dagooc, and based on Modern Arnis. Dagooc is the highest ranking Grand Master along with De la Cruz in the [17] Modern Arnis system today. Dagooc crafts his own sticks and they are highly sought after by practitioners. Otsotiros Baston Arnis System - founded by Pepito Robas, one of Remy Presas's senior-most associates Abaniko Tres Puntas - developed by Mateo D. Estolloso from Antique in the 1930s, inherited by Rene Tongson, one of the senior-most Modern Arnis practitioners. Lightning Scientific Arnis (LSAI)- Tercia Cerrada Cadenilla y Espada y Daga style founded by Benjamin Luna Lema in 1937. Eskrima Labaniego - founded by Bert Labaniego who was one of Ben Lema's senior associates Kali Arnis International - founded by Vicente Sanchez, a master of Cinco Teros from his hometown of Pangasinan, Modern Arnis and Lightning [17] Scientific Arnis. Sanchez is the 3rd highest ranking Grand Master in Modern Arnis system alive today. Pekiti Tirsia Kali - Founded by Conrado Tortal and carried on by Leo Tortal Gaje, inheritor of the family system of the Tortal clan. The name means "to cut into pieces at close range", although it includes techniques for all ranges. One of the most recognized blade-oriented systems. It is the system used by the Philippine Marine Corps Force Recon Battalion.

                                      

Dekiti Tirsia Siradas - by Jerson "Nene" Tortal Sr, of the Tortal clan and related to Pekiti Tirsia. Kali De Leon - founded by Jun de Leon from his grandfather's style and many grandmasters in the Philippines. Kalis Ilustrisimo - Founded by Antonio "Tatang" Ilustrisimo; important as the ancestor of many current Eskrima systems. Bakbakan International - Founded by Antonio Diego, Rey Galang, Christopher Ricketts, senior students of Tatang Ilustrisimo Bahad Zu'Bu - Founded by Epifanio Yuli Romo, influenced by his own family style and Kali Ilustrisimo. He is Tatang Ilustrisimo's second seniormost student. Sayoc Kali Philippines - After years of extensive propagation of the Filipino Martial Arts in the US, Grandmaster Baltazar "Bo" Sayoc returned to the Philippines to promote the art in his native homeland. De Campo Uno-Dos-Tres Orihinal (De Campo 1-2-3) - founded by Jose Caballero Lameco Eskrima - Founded by Edgar Sulite. The name comes from the three ranges of the system, Largo (Spanish for "long"), Medio ("medium"), and Corto ("short"). It is a composite of many systems with heavy influence from De Campo 1-2-3 and Kali Illustrisimo. Dizon style Eskrima - practiced by Felicisimo Dizon Sr. and carried on by his son Felicisimo Dizon Jr. Doblete Rapillon - founded by Jose Mena Cabales Serrada Eskrima - founded by Angel Cabales. Lapunti Arnis de Abanico - founded by the Caburnay family.
[18]

Arnis De Cadena (Pronus Supinus) - founded by Chinese-Filipino Johnny Chiuten which brought many infusions from his original background as an expert Chinese martial artist. Tapado - a style created by Romeo "Nono" Mamar that differs from other Eskrima styles in that in concentrates on long sticks (45-47 inches) Arkado Arnis - founded by Vhir Tubera Paclibar Bicol Arnis (Sais Tiradas System) - founded by Jaime Paclibar Mirarada Eskrima Academy - Art Miraflor Mirarada Eskrima Academy- founded by Grand Master Art Miraflor started since 1968 in Stockton, California. Moro-moro Orabes Heneral - founded by Master Alejandro "Andy" Abrian (November 3, 1936 - April 18, 2010) Rapido Realismo Kali - Founded by Henry Espera from Kali Ilustrisimo, Abrian's Orabes Heneral Eskrima and Automatic Arnis Garimot Arnis - Led by Gat Puno Abon "Garimot" Baet. Siete Pares Eskrima - Founded by Sozing Labor and Bert Labitan

Koridas - Mixed Martial Arts- founded by Pedro "Toldong" Hernando [edit]International Systems

Lacoste-Inosanto Kali - developed by Dan Inosanto from various other styles; he does not call it a system in its own right, but rather a blend of systems from John Lacoste and many grandmasters listed here. Villabrille-Largusa Kali - founded by Floro Villarbille and Ben Largusa Bahala Na Giron Arnis Eskrima - founded by Leo M. Giron, the Bahala Na System (Bahala na means come what may) is currently lead by Grand Master Tony Somera in Stockton, California. Inayan Eskrima - Developed by Suro Mike Inay from various other styles Sudlud Eskrima - A popular system of Eskrima founded by Ray Terry Kali Sikaran - Founded by Jeff Espinous and Johan Sklberg, two of the leading FMA representatives in Europe. It's a fast growing blend of systems with clubs in numerous countries. Kali Majapahit - Founded by Guro Fred Evrard, the Kali Majapahit system has its roots in Kali Sikaran, Inayan Eskrima, Pencak Silat and Hakka Kuntao. Vee Arnis Jitsu - founded by Florendo "Professor Vee" Visitacion Arnis De Leon - founded by Anding De Leon, based on Modern Arnis Natural Spirit International - founded by Kelly Worden, based on Modern Arnis Rapid arnis - Founded in 1993 by Pat O'Malley and John Harvey who are recognised as two of Europe's leading authorities on the Filipino martial arts. A fast, aggressive system which is a combination of other styles. Latigo y Daga - Whip and dagger method founded by Tom Meadows. Dog Brothers - a group notorious for their Gatherings which feature full-contact stick fighting and minimal protection. Latosa Eskrima - founded by GM Rene Latosa, and taught alongside Wing Tsun in the IWTO schools and their offshoots worldwide.
[19]

Sayoc Kali - founded by Grandmaster Baltazar "Bo" Sayoc, the system promotes the "all blade, all the time" methodology of Filipino Martial Arts. The family system is now led by Pamana Tuhon Christopher Sayoc.

Senkotiros - Founded by Grandmaster Max M. Pallen and learned the basic techniques of the style from his grandfather. Senkotiros originated in the Bicol Region from the island of Luzon in the Philippines. [edit]Eskrima in popular culture

Etech

Microphones are referred to by their transducer principle, such as condenser, dynamic, etc., and by their directional characteristics. Sometimes other characteristics such as diaphragm size, intended use or orientation of the principal sound input to the principal axis (endor side-address) of the microphone are used to describe the microphone. Condenser microphone Inside the Oktava 319 condenser microphone

The condenser microphone, invented at Bell Labs in 1916 by E. C. Wente

[2]

is also called a capacitor microphone or electrostatic

microphone. Here, thediaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and the vibrations produce changes in the distance between the plates. There are two types, depending on the method of extracting the audio signal from the transducer: DC-biased and radio frequency (RF) or high frequency (HF) condenser microphones. With a DC-biased microphone, the plates are biased with a fixed charge (Q). The voltage maintained across the capacitor plates changes with the vibrations in the air, according to the capacitance equation (C = Q / V), where Q = charge in coulombs, C = capacitance in farads and V = potential difference in volts. The capacitance of the plates is inversely proportional to the distance between them for a parallel-plate capacitor. (See capacitance for details.) The assembly of fixed and movable plates is called an "element" or "capsule."

A nearly constant charge is maintained on the capacitor. As the capacitance changes, the charge across the capacitor does change very slightly, but at audible frequencies it is sensibly constant. The capacitance of the capsule (around 5 to 100 pF) and the value of the bias resistor (100 megohms to tens of gigohms) form a filter that is high-pass for the audio signal, and low-pass for the bias voltage. Note that the time constant of an RC circuit equals the product of the resistance and capacitance.

Within the time-frame of the capacitance change (as much as 50 ms at 20 Hz audio signal), the charge is practically constant and the voltage across the capacitor changes instantaneously to reflect the change in capacitance. The voltage across the capacitor varies above and below the bias voltage. The voltage difference between the bias and the capacitor is seen across the series resistor. The voltage across the resistor is amplified for performance or recording. In most cases, the electronics in the microphone itself contribute no voltage gain as the voltage differential is quite significant, up to several volts for high sound levels. Since this is a very high impedance circuit, current gain only is usually needed with the voltage remaining constant. The circuit is therefore often called an "impedance converter" or "follower" because no voltage gain is provided.
[citation needed]

AKG C451B small-diaphragm condenser microphone

RF condenser microphones use a comparatively low RF voltage, generated by a low-noise oscillator. The signal from the oscillator may either be amplitude modulated by the capacitance changes produced by the sound waves moving the capsule diaphragm, or the capsule may be part of a resonant circuit that modulates the frequency of the oscillator signal. Demodulation yields a low-noise audio frequency signal with a very low source impedance. The absence of a high bias voltage permits the use of a diaphragm with looser tension, which may be used to achieve wider frequency response due to higher compliance. The RF biasing process results in a lower electrical impedance capsule, a useful by-product of which is that RF condenser microphones can be operated in damp weather conditions that could create problems in DC-biased microphones with contaminated insulating surfaces. The Sennheiser "MKH" series of microphones use the RF biasing technique.

Condenser microphones span the range from telephone transmitters through inexpensive karaoke microphones to high-fidelity recording microphones. They generally produce a high-quality audio signal and are now the popular choice in laboratory and studio recording applications. The inherent suitability of this technology is due to the very small mass that must be moved by the incident sound wave, unlike other microphone types that require the sound wave to do more work. They require a power source, provided either via microphone inputs on equipment as phantom power or from a small battery. Power is necessary for establishing the capacitor plate voltage, and is also needed to power the microphone electronics (impedance conversion in the case of electret and DC-polarized microphones, demodulation or detection in the case of RF/HF microphones). Condenser microphones are also available with two diaphragms that can be electrically connected to provide a range of polar patterns (see below), such as cardioid, omnidirectional, and figure-eight. It is also possible to vary the pattern continuously with some microphones, for example the Rde NT2000 or CAD M179. Electret condenser microphone Main article: Electret microphone

First patent on foil electret microphone by G. M. Sessler et al. (pages 1 to 3)

An electret microphone is a relatively new type of capacitor microphone invented at Bell laboratories in 1962 by Gerhard Sessler and Jim West.
[3]

The externally applied charge described above under condenser microphones is replaced by a permanent charge in an electret

material. An electret is aferroelectric material that has been permanently electrically charged or polarized. The name comes from electrostatic and magnet; a static charge is embedded in an electret by alignment of the static charges in the material, much the way a magnet is made by aligning the magnetic domains in a piece of iron.

Due to their good performance and ease of manufacture, hence low cost, the vast majority of microphones made today are electret microphones; a semiconductor manufacturer
[4]

estimates annual production at over one billion units. Nearly all cell-phone, computer, PDA

and headset microphones are electret types. They are used in many applications, from high-quality recording and lavalier use to built-in microphones in small sound recording devices and telephones. Though electret microphones were once considered low quality, the best ones can now rival traditional condenser microphones in every respect and can even offer the long-term stability and ultra-flat response needed for a measurement microphone. Unlike other capacitor microphones, they require no polarizing voltage, but often contain an integrated preamplifier that does require power (often incorrectly called polarizing power or bias). This preamplifier is frequently phantom powered in sound reinforcement and studio applications. Microphones designed for personal computer (PC) use, sometimes called multimedia microphones, use a stereo 3.5 mm plug (though a mono source) with the ring receiving power via a resistor from (normally) a 5 V supply in the computer; unfortunately, a number of incompatible dynamic microphones are fitted with 3.5 mm plugs too. While few electret microphones rival the best DC-polarized units in terms of noise level, this is not due to any inherent limitation of the electret. Rather, mass production techniques needed to produce microphones cheaply don't lend themselves to the precision needed to produce the highest quality microphones, due to the tight tolerances required in internal dimensions. These tolerances are the same for all condenser microphones, whether the DC, RF or electret technology is used. Dynamic microphone

Patti Smith singing into a Shure SM58(dynamic cardioid type) microphone

Dynamic microphones work via electromagnetic induction. They are robust, relatively inexpensive and resistant to moisture. This, coupled with their potentially high gain before feedback makes them ideal for on-stage use.

Moving-coil microphones use the same dynamic principle as in a loudspeaker, only reversed. A small movable induction coil, positioned in the magnetic fieldof a permanent magnet, is attached to the diaphragm. When sound enters through the windscreen of the microphone, the sound wave moves the diaphragm. When the diaphragm vibrates, the coil moves in the magnetic field, producing a varying current in the coil through electromagnetic induction. A single dynamic membrane does not respond linearly to all audio frequencies. Some microphones for this reason utilize multiple membranes for the different parts of the audio spectrum and then combine the resulting signals. Combining the multiple signals correctly is difficult and designs that do this are rare and tend to be expensive. There are on the other hand several designs that are more specifically aimed towards isolated parts of the audio spectrum. The AKG D 112, for example, is designed for bass response rather than treble. Ribbon microphone Main article: Ribbon microphone
[5]

In audio engineering several kinds of microphones are often used at the same time to get the best result.

Edmund Lowe using a ribbon microphone

Ribbon microphones use a thin, usually corrugated metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. The ribbon is electrically connected to the microphone's output, and its vibration within the magnetic field generates the electrical signal. Ribbon microphones are similar to moving coil microphones in the sense that both produce sound by means of magnetic induction. Basic ribbon microphones detect sound in a bidirectional (also called figure-eight) pattern because the ribbon, which is open to sound both front and back, responds to the pressure gradient rather than the sound pressure. Though the symmetrical front and rear pickup can be a nuisance in normal stereo recording, the high side rejection can be used to advantage by positioning a ribbon microphone horizontally, for example above cymbals, so that the rear lobe picks up only sound from the cymbals. Crossed figure 8, or Blumlein pair, stereo recording is gaining in popularity, and the figure 8 response of a ribbon microphone is ideal for that application.

Other directional patterns are produced by enclosing one side of the ribbon in an acoustic trap or baffle, allowing sound to reach only one side. The classic RCA Type 77-DX microphone has several externally adjustable positions of the internal baffle, allowing the selection of several response patterns ranging from "Figure-8" to "Unidirectional". Such older ribbon microphones, some of which still provide high quality sound reproduction, were once valued for this reason, but a good low-frequency response could only be obtained when the ribbon was suspended very loosely, which made them relatively fragile. Modern ribbon materials, including new nanomaterials
[6]

have now been

introduced that eliminate those concerns, and even improve the effective dynamic range of ribbon microphones at low frequencies. Protective wind screens can reduce the danger of damaging a vintage ribbon, and also reduce plosive artifacts in the recording. Properly designed wind screens produce negligible treble attenuation. In common with other classes of dynamic microphone, ribbon microphones don't require phantom power; in fact, this voltage can damage some older ribbon microphones. Some new modern ribbon microphone designs incorporate a preamplifier and, therefore, do require phantom power, and circuits of modern passive ribbon microphones, i.e.,

those without the aforementioned preamplifier, are specifically designed to resist damage to the ribbon and transformer by phantom power. Also there are new ribbon materials available that are immune to wind blasts and phantom power. Carbon microphone Main article: Carbon microphone

A carbon microphone, also known as a carbon button microphone (or sometimes just a button microphone), use a capsule or button containing carbon granules pressed between two metal plates like the Berliner and Edison microphones. A voltage is applied across the metal plates, causing a small current to flow through the carbon. One of the plates, the diaphragm, vibrates in sympathy with incident sound waves, applying a varying pressure to the carbon. The changing pressure deforms the granules, causing the contact area between each pair of adjacent granules to change, and this causes the electrical resistance of the mass of granules to change. The changes in resistance cause a corresponding change in the current flowing through the microphone, producing the electrical signal. Carbon microphones were once commonly used in telephones; they have extremely low-quality sound reproduction and a very limited frequency response range, but are very robust devices. The Boudet microphone, which used relatively large carbon balls, was similar to the granule carbon button microphones.
[7]

Unlike other microphone types, the carbon microphone can also be used as a type of amplifier, using a small amount of sound energy to control a larger amount of electrical energy. Carbon microphones found use as early telephone repeaters, making long distance phone calls possible in the era before vacuum tubes. These repeaters worked by mechanically coupling a magnetic telephone receiver to a carbon microphone: the faint signal from the receiver was transferred to the microphone, with a resulting stronger electrical signal to send down the line. One illustration of this amplifier effect was the oscillation caused by feedback, resulting in an audible squeal from the old "candlestick" telephone if its earphone was placed near the carbon microphone. Piezoelectric microphone A crystal microphone or piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezoelectricity the ability of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressure to convert vibrations into an electrical signal. An example of this is potassium sodium tartrate, which is a piezoelectric crystal that works as a transducer, both as a microphone and as a slimline loudspeaker component. Crystal microphones were once commonly supplied with vacuum tube (valve) equipment, such as domestic tape recorders. Their high output impedance matched the high input impedance (typically about 10 megohms) of the vacuum tube input stage well. They were difficult to match to early transistor equipment, and were quickly supplanted by dynamic microphones for a time, and later small electret condenser devices. The high impedance of the crystal microphone made it very susceptible to handling noise, both from the microphone itself and from the connecting cable.

Piezoelectric transducers are often used as contact microphones to amplify sound from acoustic musical instruments, to sense drum hits, for triggering electronic samples, and to record sound in challenging environments, such as underwater under high pressure. Saddlemounted pickups on acoustic guitars are generally piezoelectric devices that contact the strings passing over the saddle. This type of microphone is different from magnetic coil pickups commonly visible on typical electric guitars, which use magnetic induction, rather than mechanical coupling, to pick up vibration. Fiber optic microphone

The Optoacoustics 1140 fiber optic microphone

A fiber optic microphone converts acoustic waves into electrical signals by sensing changes in light intensity, instead of sensing changes in capacitance or magnetic fields as with conventional microphones.
[8][9]

During operation, light from a laser source travels through an optical fiber to illuminate the surface of a tiny, sound-sensitive reflective diaphragm. Sound causes the diaphragm to vibrate, thereby minutely changing the intensity of the light it reflects. The modulated light is then transmitted over a second optical fiber to a photo detector, which transforms the intensity-modulated light into analog or digital audio for transmission or recording. Fiber optic microphones possess high dynamic and frequency range, similar to the best high fidelity conventional microphones.

Fiber optic microphones do not react to or influence any electrical, magnetic, electrostatic or radioactive fields (this is called EMI/RFI immunity). The fiber optic microphone design is therefore ideal for use in areas where conventional microphones are ineffective or dangerous, such as inside industrial turbines or in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) equipment environments.

Fiber optic microphones are robust, resistant to environmental changes in heat and moisture, and can be produced for any directionality or impedance matching. The distance between the microphone's light source and its photo detector may be up to several kilometers without need for any preamplifier and/or other electrical device, making fiber optic microphones suitable for industrial and surveillance acoustic monitoring.

Fiber optic microphones are used in very specific application areas such as for infrasound monitoring and noise-canceling. They have proven especially useful in medical applications, such as allowing radiologists, staff and patients within the powerful and noisy magnetic field to converse normally, inside the MRI suites as well as in remote control rooms.
[10]

) Other uses include industrial equipment monitoring

and sensing, audio calibration and measurement, high-fidelity recording and law enforcement. Laser microphone Main article: Laser microphone

Laser microphones are often portrayed in movies as spy gadgets. A laser beam is aimed at the surface of a window or other plane surface that is affected by sound. The slight vibrations of this surface displace the returned beam, causing it to trace the sound wave. The vibrating laser spot is then converted back to sound. In a more robust and expensive implementation, the returned light is split and fed to an interferometer, which detects movement of the surface. The former implementation is a tabletop experiment; the latter requires an extremely stable laser and precise optics.

A new type of laser microphone is a device that uses a laser beam and smoke or vapor to detect sound vibrations in free air. On 25 August 2009, U.S. patent 7,580,533 issued for a Particulate Flow Detection Microphone based on a laser-photocell pair with a moving stream of smoke or vapor in the laser beam's path. Sound pressure waves cause disturbances in the smoke that in turn cause variations in the amount of laser light reaching the photo detector. A prototype of the device was demonstrated at the 127th Audio Engineering Society convention in New York City from 9 through 12 October 2009. Liquid microphone Main article: Water microphone

Early microphones did not produce intelligible speech, until Alexander Graham Bell made improvements including a variable resistance microphone/transmitter. Bell's liquid transmitter consisted of a metal cup filled with water with a small amount of sulfuric acid added. A sound wave caused the diaphragm to move, forcing a needle to move up and down in the water. The electrical resistance between the wire and the cup was then inversely proportional to the size of the water meniscus around the submerged needle. Elisha Gray filed a caveat for a version using a brass rod instead of the needle. Other minor variations and improvements were made to the liquid microphone by Majoranna, Chambers, Vanni, Sykes, and Elisha Gray, and one version was patented by Reginald Fessenden in 1903. These were the first working microphones, but they were not practical for commercial application. The famous first phone conversation between Bell and Watson took place using a liquid microphone. MEMS microphone Main article: Microelectromechanical systems

The MEMS (MicroElectrical-Mechanical System) microphone is also called a microphone chip or silicon microphone. The pressure-sensitive diaphragm is etched directly into a silicon chip by MEMS techniques, and is usually accompanied with integrated preamplifier. Most MEMS microphones are variants of the condenser microphone design. Often MEMS microphones have built in analog-to-digital converter (ADC) circuits on the same CMOS chip making the chip a digital microphone and so more readily integrated with modern digital products. Major manufacturers producing MEMS silicon microphones are Wolfson Microelectronics (WM7xxx), Analog Devices, Akustica (AKU200x), Infineon (SMM310 product), Knowles Electronics, Memstech (MSMx), NXP Semiconductors, Sonion MEMS, AAC Acoustic Technologies,
[11]

and Omron.

[12]

Speakers as microphones A loudspeaker, a transducer that turns an electrical signal into sound waves, is the functional opposite of a microphone. Since a conventional speaker is constructed much like a dynamic microphone (with a diaphragm, coil and magnet), speakers can actually work "in reverse" as microphones. The result, though, is a microphone with poor quality, limited frequency response (particularly at the high end), and poor sensitivity. In practical use, speakers are sometimes used as microphones in applications where high quality and sensitivity are not needed such as intercoms, walkie-talkies or Video game voice chat peripherals, or when conventional microphones are in short supply.

However, there is at least one other practical application of this principle: Using a medium-size woofer placed closely in front of a "kick" (bass drum) in a drum set to act as a microphone. The use of relatively large speakers to transduce low frequency sound sources, especially in music production, is becoming fairly common. A product example of this type of device is the Yamaha Subkick, a 6.5-inch (170 mm) woofer shock-mounted it into a 10" drum shell used in front of kick drums. Since a relatively massive membrane is unable to transduce high frequencies, placing a speaker in front of a kick drum is often ideal for reducing cymbal and snare bleed into the kick drum sound. Less commonly, microphones themselves can be used as speakers, almost always as tweeters. Microphones, however, are not designed to handle the power that speaker components are routinely required to cope with. One instance of such an application was the STC microphone-derived 4001 super-tweeter, which was successfully used in a number of high quality loudspeaker systems from the late 1960s to the mid-70s. Capsule design and directivity

The inner elements of a microphone are the primary source of differences in directivity. A pressure microphone uses a diaphragm between a fixed internal volume of air and the environment, and responds uniformly to pressure from all directions, so it is said to be omnidirectional. A pressure-gradient microphone uses a diaphragm that is at least partially open on both sides. The pressure difference between the two sides produces its directional characteristics. Other elements such as the external shape of the microphone and external devices such as interference tubes can also alter a microphone's directional response. A pure pressure-gradient microphone is equally sensitive to sounds arriving from front or back, but insensitive to sounds arriving from the side because sound arriving at the front and back at the same time creates no gradient between the two. The characteristic directional pattern of a pure pressure-gradient microphone is like a figure-8. Other polar patterns are derived by creating a capsule that combines these two effects in different ways. The cardioid, for instance, features a partially closed backside, so its response is a combination of pressure and pressure-gradient characteristics. Microphone polar patterns
[13]

A microphone's directionality or polar pattern indicates how sensitive it is to sounds arriving at different angles about its central axis. The polar patterns illustrated above represent the locus of points that produce the same signal level output in the microphone if a given sound pressure level (SPL) is generated from that point. How the physical body of the microphone is oriented relative to the diagrams depends on the microphone design. For large-membrane microphones such as in the Oktava (pictured above), the upward direction in the polar diagram is usually perpendicular to the microphone body, commonly known as "side fire" or "side address". For small diaphragm microphones such as the Shure (also pictured above), it usually extends from the axis of the microphone commonly known as "end fire" or "top/end address".

Some microphone designs combine several principles in creating the desired polar pattern. This ranges from shielding (meaning diffraction/dissipation/absorption) by the housing itself to electronically combining dual membranes. Omnidirectional

An omnidirectional (or nondirectional) microphone's response is generally considered to be a perfect sphere in three dimensions. In the real world, this is not the case. As with directional microphones, the polar pattern for an "omnidirectional" microphone is a function of frequency. The body of the microphone is not infinitely small and, as a consequence, it tends to get in its own way with respect to sounds arriving from the rear, causing a slight flattening of the polar response. This flattening increases as the diameter of the microphone (assuming it's cylindrical) reaches the wavelength of the frequency in question. Therefore, the smallest diameter microphone gives the best omnidirectional characteristics at high frequencies.

The wavelength of sound at 10 kHz is little over an inch (3.4 cm) so the smallest measuring microphones are often 1/4" (6 mm) in diameter, which practically eliminates directionality even up to the highest frequencies. Omnidirectional microphones, unlike cardioids, do not employ resonant cavities as delays, and so can be considered the "purest" microphones in terms of low coloration; they add very little to the original sound. Being pressure-sensitive they can also have a very flat low-frequency response down to 20 Hz or below. Pressure-sensitive microphones also respond much less to wind noise and plosives than directional (velocity sensitive) microphones.
[14]

An example of a nondirectional microphone is the round black eight ball. Unidirectional

A unidirectional microphone is sensitive to sounds from only one direction. The diagram above illustrates a number of these patterns. The microphone faces upwards in each diagram. The sound intensity for a particular frequency is plotted for angles radially from 0 to 360. (Professional diagrams show these scales and include multiple plots at different frequencies. The diagrams given here provide only an overview of typical pattern shapes, and their names.) Cardioid US664A University Sound Dynamic Supercardioid Microphone

The most common unidirectional microphone is a cardioid microphone, so named because the sensitivity pattern is heart-shaped. A hypercardioid microphone is similar but with a tighter area of front sensitivity and a smaller lobe of rear sensitivity. A super-cardioid microphone is similar to a hyper-cardioid, except there is more front pickup and less rear pickup. These three patterns are commonly used as vocal or speech microphones, since they are good at rejecting sounds from other directions.

A cardioid microphone is effectively a superposition of an omnidirectional and a figure-8 microphone; for sound waves coming from the back, the negative signal from the figure-8 cancels the positive signal from the omnidirectional element, whereas for sound waves coming from the front, the two add to each other. A hypercardioid microphone is similar, but with a slightly larger figure-8 contribution. Since pressure gradient transducer microphones are directional, putting them very close to the sound source (at distances of a few centimeters) results in a bass boost. This is known as the proximity effect. Bi-directional "Figure 8" or bi-directional microphones receive sound equally from both the front and back of the element. Most ribbon microphones are of this pattern. In principle they do not respond to sound pressure at all, only to the gradient between front and back; since sound arriving from the side reaches front and back equally there is no gradient and therefore no sensitivity to sound from that direction. While omnidirectional microphones are scalar transducers responding to pressure from any direction, bi-directional microphones are vector transducers responding to the gradient along an axis normal to the plane of the diaphragm. is inverted for sounds arriving from the back side. Shotgun An Audio-Technica shotgun microphone
[citation needed] [15]

As a result, output polarity

Shotgun microphones are the most highly directional. They have small lobes of sensitivity to the left, right, and rear but are significantly less sensitive to the side and rear than other directional microphones. This results from placing the element at the end of a tube with slots cut along the side; wave cancellation eliminates much of the off-axis sound. Due to the narrowness of their sensitivity area, shotgun microphones are commonly used on television and film sets, in stadiums, and for field recording of wildlife. Boundary or "PZM" Several approaches have been developed for effectively using a microphone in less-than-ideal acoustic spaces, which often suffer from excessive reflections from one or more of the surfaces (boundaries) that make up the space. If the microphone is placed in, or very close to, one of these boundaries, the reflections from that surface are not sensed by the microphone. Initially this was done by placing an ordinary microphone adjacent to the surface, sometimes in a block of acoustically transparent foam. Sound engineers Ed Long and Ron Wickersham

developed the concept of placing the diaphgram parallel to and facing the boundary.

[16]

While the patent has expired, "Pressure Zone

Microphone" and "PZM" are still active trademarks of Crown International, and the generic term "boundary microphone" is preferred. While a boundary microphone was initially implemented using an omnidirectional element, it is also possible to mount a directional microphone close enough to the surface to gain some of the benefits of this technique while retaining the directional properties of the element. Crown's trademark on this approach is "Phase Coherent Cardioid" or "PCC," but there are other makers who employ this technique as well. Application-specific designs

A lavalier microphone is made for hands-free operation. These small microphones are worn on the body. Originally, they were held in place with a lanyard worn around the neck, but more often they are fastened to clothing with a clip, pin, tape or magnet. The lavalier cord may be hidden by clothes and either run to an RF transmitter in a pocket or clipped to a belt (for mobile use), or run directly to the mixer (for stationary applications).

A wireless microphone transmits the audio as a radio or optical signal rather than via a cable. It usually sends its signal using a small FM radio transmitter to a nearby receiver connected to the sound system, but it can also use infrared waves if the transmitter and receiver are within sight of each other.

A contact microphone picks up vibrations directly from a solid surface or object, as opposed to sound vibrations carried through air. One use for this is to detect sounds of a very low level, such as those from small objects or insects. The microphone commonly consists of a magnetic (moving coil) transducer, contact plate and contact pin. The contact plate is placed directly on the vibrating part of a musical instrument or other surface, and the contact pin transfers vibrations to the coil. Contact microphones have been used to pick up the sound of a snail's heartbeat and the footsteps of ants. A portable version of this microphone has recently been developed. A throat microphone is a variant of the contact microphone that picks up speech directly from a person's throat, which it is strapped to. This lets the device be used in areas with ambient sounds that would otherwise make the speaker inaudible.

A parabolic microphone uses a parabolic reflector to collect and focus sound waves onto a microphone receiver, in much the same way that a parabolic antenna (e.g. satellite dish) does with radio waves. Typical uses of this microphone, which has unusually focused front sensitivity and can pick up sounds from many meters away, include nature recording, outdoor sporting events, eavesdropping,law enforcement, and even espionage. Parabolic microphones are not typically used for standard recording applications, because they tend to have poor low-frequency response as a side effect of their design.

A stereo microphone integrates two microphones in one unit to produce a stereophonic signal. A stereo microphone is often used for broadcast applications or field recording where it would be impractical to configure two separate condenser microphones in a classic XY configuration (see microphone practice) for stereophonic recording. Some such microphones have an adjustable angle of coverage between the two channels.

A noise-canceling microphone is a highly directional design intended for noisy environments. One such use is in aircraft cockpits where they are normally installed as boom microphones on headsets. Another use is on loud concert stages for vocalists. Many noise-canceling microphones combine signals received from two diaphragms that are in opposite electrical polarity or are processed electronically. In dual diaphragm designs, the main diaphragm is mounted closest to the intended source and the second is positioned farther away from the

source so that it can pick up environmental sounds to be subtracted from the main diaphragm's signal. After the two signals have been combined, sounds other than the intended source are greatly reduced, substantially increasing intelligibility. Other noise-canceling designs use one diaphragm that is affected by ports open to the sides and rear of the microphone, with the sum being a 16 dB rejection of sounds that are farther away. One noise-canceling headset design using a single diaphragm has been used prominently by vocal artists such as Garth Brooks and Janet Jackson. Connectors
[17]

A few noise-canceling microphones are throat microphones.

Electronic symbol for a microphone

The most common connectors used by microphones are:

 

Male XLR connector on professional microphones inch (sometimes referred to as 6.3 mm) jack plug also known as 1/4 inch TRS connector on less expensive consumer microphones. Many consumer microphones use an unbalanced 1/4 inch phone jack. Harmonica microphones commonly use a high impedance 1/4 inch TS connection to be run through guitar amplifiers.

3.5 mm (sometimes referred to as 1/8 inch mini) stereo (wired as mono) mini phone plug on very inexpensive and computer microphones

Some microphones use other connectors, such as a 5-pin XLR, or mini XLR for connection to portable equipment. Some lavalier (or 'lapel', from the days of attaching the microphone to the news reporters suit lapel) microphones use a proprietary connector for connection to a wireless transmitter. Since 2005, professional-quality microphones with USB connections have begun to appear, designed for direct recording into computer-based software. Impedance-matching Microphones have an electrical characteristic called impedance, measured in ohms ( ), that depends on the design. Typically, the rated impedance is stated.
[18]

Low impedance is considered under 600

. Medium impedance is considered between 600

and 10 k . High

impedance is above 10 k . Owing to their built-in amplifier, condenser microphones typically have an output impedance between 50 and 200 .
[19]

The output of a given microphone delivers the same power whether it is low or high impedance. If a microphone is made in high and low impedance versions, the high impedance version has a higher output voltage for a given sound pressure input, and is suitable for use with vacuum-tube guitar amplifiers, for instance, which have a high input impedance and require a relatively high signal input voltage to overcome the tubes' inherent noise. Most professional microphones are low impedance, about 200 or lower. Professional vacuum-tube

sound equipment incorporates a transformer that steps up the impedance of the microphone circuit to the high impedance and voltage needed to drive the input tube; the impedance conversion inherently creates voltage gain as well. External matching transformers are also available that can be used in-line between a low impedance microphone and a high impedance input.

Low-impedance microphones are preferred over high impedance for two reasons: one is that using a high-impedance microphone with a long cable results in high frequency signal loss due to cable capacitance, which forms a low-pass filter with the microphone output

impedance. The other is that long high-impedance cables tend to pick up more hum (and possibly radio-frequency interference(RFI) as well). Nothing is damaged if the impedance between microphone and other equipment is mismatched; the worst that happens is a reduction in signal or change in frequency response.
[20]

Most microphones are designed not to have their impedance matched by the load they are connected to.

Doing so can alter their

frequency response and cause distortion, especially at high sound pressure levels. Certain ribbon and dynamic microphones are exceptions, due to the designers' assumption of a certain load impedance being part of the internal electro-acoustical damping circuit of the microphone.
[21][dubious discuss]

Digital microphone interface Neumann D-01 digital microphone and Neumann DMI-8 8-channel USB Digital Microphone Interface

The AES 42 standard, published by the Audio Engineering Society, defines a digital interface for microphones. Microphones conforming to this standard directly output a digital audio stream through an XLR male connector, rather than producing an analog output. Digital microphones may be used either with new equipment with appropriate input connections that conform to the AES 42 standard, or else via a suitable interface box. Studio-quality microphones that operate in accordance with the AES 42 standard are now available from a number of microphone manufacturers. Measurements and specifications

A comparison of the far field on-axis frequency response of the Oktava 319 and the Shure SM58

Because of differences in their construction, microphones have their own characteristic responses to sound. This difference in response produces non-uniform phase and frequency responses. In addition, microphones are not uniformly sensitive to sound pressure, and can accept differing levels without distorting. Although for scientific applications microphones with a more uniform response are desirable, this is often not the case for music recording, as the non-uniform response of a microphone can produce a desirable coloration of the sound. There is an international standard for microphone specifications,
[18]

but few manufacturers adhere to it. As a result, comparison of published

data from different manufacturers is difficult because different measurement techniques are used. The Microphone Data Website has collated the technical specifications complete with pictures, response curves and technical data from the microphone manufacturers for every currently listed microphone, and even a few obsolete models, and shows the data for them all in one common format for ease of comparison.[1]. Caution should be used in drawing any solid conclusions from this or any other published data, however, unless it is known that the manufacturer has supplied specifications in accordance with IEC 60268-4.

A frequency response diagram plots the microphone sensitivity in decibels over a range of frequencies (typically at least 020 kHz), generally for perfectly on-axis sound (sound arriving at 0 to the capsule). Frequency response may be less informatively stated textually like so: "30 Hz16 kHz 3 dB". This is interpreted as meaning a nearly flat, linear, plot between the stated frequencies, with variations in amplitude of no more than plus or minus 3 dB. However, one cannot determine from this information how smooth the variations are, nor in what parts of the spectrum they occur. Note that commonly made statements such as "20 Hz 20 kHz" are meaningless without a decibel measure of tolerance. Directional microphones' frequency response varies greatly with distance from the sound source, and with the geometry of the sound source. IEC 60268-4 specifies that frequency response should be measured in plane progressive wave conditions

(very far away from the source) but this is seldom practical. Close talking microphones may be measured with different sound sources and distances, but there is no standard and therefore no way to compare data from different models unless the measurement technique is described.

The self-noise or equivalent noise level is the sound level that creates the same output voltage as the microphone does in the absence of sound. This represents the lowest point of the microphone's dynamic range, and is particularly important should you wish to record sounds that are quiet. The measure is often stated in dB(A), which is the equivalent loudness of the noise on a decibel scale frequency-weighted for how the ear hears, for example: "15 dBA SPL" (SPL means sound pressure level relative to 20 micropascals). The lower the number the better. Some microphone manufacturers state the noise level using ITU-R 468 noise weighting, which more accurately represents the way we hear noise, but gives a figure some 1114 dB higher. A quiet microphone typically measures 20 dBA SPL or 32 dB SPL 468-weighted. Very quiet microphones have existed for years for special applications, such the Brel & Kjaer 4179, with a noise level around 0 dB SPL. Recently some microphones with low noise specifications have been introduced in the studio/entertainment market, such as models from Neumann and Rde that advertise noise levels between 57 dBA. Typically this is achieved by altering the frequency response of the capsule and electronics to result in lower noise within the A-weighting curve while broadband noise may be increased.

The maximum SPL the microphone can accept is measured for particular values of total harmonic distortion (THD), typically 0.5%. This amount of distortion is generally inaudible, so one can safely use the microphone at this SPL without harming the recording. Example: "142 dB SPL peak (at 0.5% THD)". The higher the value, the better, although microphones with a very high maximum SPL also have a higher self-noise.
[citation needed]

The clipping level is perhaps a better indicator of maximum usable level,

as the 1% THD figure usually quoted under max SPL is

really a very mild level of distortion, quite inaudible especially on brief high peaks. Harmonic distortion from microphones is usually of loworder (mostly third harmonic) type, and hence not very audible even at 35%. sound on peaks, and should be avoided if at all possible. max SPL.
[citation needed] [citation needed]

Clipping, on the other hand produces a harsh

For some microphones the clipping level may be much higher than the

The dynamic range of a microphone is the difference in SPL between the noise floor and the maximum SPL. If stated on its own, for example "120 dB", it conveys significantly less information than having the self-noise and maximum SPL figures individually.

Sensitivity indicates how well the microphone converts acoustic pressure to output voltage. A high sensitivity microphone creates more voltage and so needs less amplification at the mixer or recording device. This is a practical concern but is not directly an indication of the mic's quality, and in fact the term sensitivity is something of a misnomer, 'transduction gain' being perhaps more meaningful, (or just "output level") because true sensitivity is generally set by the noise floor, and too much "sensitivity" in terms of output level compromises the clipping level. There are two common measures. The (preferred) international standard is made in millivolts per pascal at 1 kHz. A higher value indicates greater sensitivity. The older American method is referred to a 1 V/Pa standard and measured in plain decibels, resulting in a negative value. Again, a higher value indicates greater sensitivity, so 60 dB is more sensitive than 70 dB. Measurement microphones

Some microphones are intended for testing speakers, measuring noise levels and otherwise quantifying an acoustic experience. These are calibrated transducers and are usually supplied with a calibration certificate that states absolute sensitivity against frequency. The quality of measurement microphones is often referred to using the designations "Class 1," "Type 2" etc., which are references not to microphone specifications but to sound level meters. performance was recently adopted.
[22]

A more comprehensive standard

[23]

for the description of measurement microphone

Measurement microphones are generally scalar sensors of pressure; they exhibit an omnidirectional response, limited only by the scattering profile of their physical dimensions. Sound intensity or sound power measurements require pressure-gradient measurements, which are typically made using arrays of at least two microphones, or with hot-wire anemometers. Microphone calibration Main article: Measurement microphone calibration

To take a scientific measurement with a microphone, its precise sensitivity must be known (in volts per pascal). Since this may change over the lifetime of the device, it is necessary to regularlycalibrate measurement microphones. This service is offered by some microphone manufacturers and by independent certified testing labs. All microphone calibration is ultimately traceable to primary standards at a national measurement institute such as NPL in the UK, PTB in Germany and NIST in the USA, which most commonly calibrate using the reciprocity primary standard. Measurement microphones calibrated using this method can then be used to calibrate other microphones using comparison calibration techniques.

Depending on the application, measurement microphones must be tested periodically (every year or several months, typically) and after any potentially damaging event, such as being dropped (most such mikes come in foam-padded cases to reduce this risk) or exposed to sounds beyond the acceptable level. Microphone array and array microphones

Main article: Microphone array

A microphone array is any number of microphones operating in tandem. There are many applications:

  

Systems for extracting voice input from ambient noise (notably telephones, speech recognition systems, hearing aids) Surround sound and related technologies Locating objects by sound: acoustic source localization, e.g. military use to locate the source(s) of artillery fire. Aircraft location and tracking.

 

High fidelity original recordings 3D spatial beamforming for localized acoustic detection of subcutaneous sounds

Typically, an array is made up of omnidirectional microphones distributed about the perimeter of a space, linked to a computer that records and interprets the results into a coherent form. Microphone windscreens

Windscreens

[note 1]

are used to protect microphones that would otherwise be buffeted by wind or vocal plosives from consonants such as

"P", "B", etc. Most microphones have an integral windscreen built around the microphone diaphragm. A screen of plastic, wire mesh or a metal cage is held at a distance from the microphone diaphragm, to shield it. This cage provides a first line of defense against the mechanical impact of objects or wind. Some microphones, such as the Shure SM58, may have an additional layer of foam inside the cage to further enhance the protective properties of the shield. One disadvantage of all windscreen types is that the microphone's high frequency response is attenuated by a small amount, depending on the density of the protective layer.

Beyond integral microphone windscreens, there are three broad classes of additional wind protection. Microphone covers

Various microphone covers

Microphone covers are often made of soft open-cell polyester or polyurethane foam because of the inexpensive, disposable nature of the foam. Optional windscreens are often available from the manufacturer and third parties. A visible example of an optional accessory windscreen is the A2WS from Shure, one of which is fitted over each of the twoShure SM57 microphones used on the United States president's lectern.
[24]

One disadvantage of polyurethane foam microphone covers is that they can deteriorate over time. Windscreens also

tend to collect dirt and moisture in their open cells and must be cleaned to prevent high frequency loss, bad odor and unhealthy conditions for the person using the microphone. On the other hand, a major advantage of concert vocalist windscreens is that one can quickly change to a clean windscreen between users, reducing the chance of transferring germs. Windscreens of various colors can be used to distinguish one microphone from another on a busy, active stage. Pop filters Pop filters or pop screens are used in controlled studio environments to minimize plosives when recording. A typical pop filter is composed of one or more layers of acoustically transparent gauze-like material, such as woven nylon (e.g. pantyhose) stretched over a circular frame and a clamp and a flexible mounting bracket to attach to the microphone stand. The pop shield is placed between the vocalist and the microphone. The closer a vocalist brings his or her lips to the microphone, the greater the requirement for a Pop filter. Singers can be trained either to soften their plosives or direct the air blast away from the microphone, in which cases they don't need a pop filter.

Pop filters also keep spittle off the microphone. Most condenser microphones can be damaged by spittle. Blimps

Two recordings being madeA blimp is being used on the left. An open-cell foam windscreen is being used on the right

a 'dead cat' and a 'dead kitten' windscreens. The dead kitten covers a stereo mic for a DSLR camera. The difference in name is due to the size of the fur.

Blimps (also known as Zeppelins) are large, hollow windscreens used to surround microphones for outdoor location audio, such as nature recording,electronic news gathering, and for film and video shoots. They can cut wind noise by as much as 25 dB, especially low-frequency

noise. The blimp is essentially a hollow cage or basket with acoustically transparent material stretched over the outer frame. The blimp works by creating a volume of still air around the microphone. The microphone is often further isolated from the blimp by an elastic suspension inside the basket. This reduces wind vibrations and handling noise transmitted from the cage. To extend the range of wind speed conditions in which the blimp remains effective, many have the option of a secondary cover over the outer shell. This is usually an acoustically transparent, synthetic fur material with long, soft hairs. Common and slang names for this include "dead cat" or "windmuff". The hairs deaden the noise caused by the shock of wind hitting the blimp. A synthetic fur cover can reduce wind noise by an additional 10 dB.
[25]