Unit 1 Systems/Organization Chapter I Introduction This Chapter is about Definition of Science, its importance and how it affects our

lives, our ways and thinking. It discusses about Famous Foreign and Local Scientists and their contributions in our lives. Section of this chapter discusses the importance of scientific Values and Attitudes in decision making and problem solving in daily life What is Science? The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge. Science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," it is a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena.The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Less formally, the word science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it. Science and technology work together Scientist never ceased experiments to learn more about the world are practicing pure science. Engineers look for ways to use this knowledge for practical applications. This application of science is called technology. For example, scientist who practice pure science want to know how certain kinds of materials, called super conductors , conduct electricity with almost no lost of energy. Engineers focus on how that technology can be used to build high-speed computers. Technology and science depend on one another. For instance, scientist did not know that tiny organism such as bacteria even existed until the technology to make precision magnifying lenses developed in the late 1699s. 1.1 Branches of Science Science can be divided into three main branches, or groups. These branches are the physical sciences, the life sciences, and the earth sciences. There are several sub branches under each main branch.

Science

Physical Science

Earth Science

Life Science

Physics

Astronomy

Geology

Paleontology

Botany

Genetics

Chemistry Oceanology Meteorology Zoology Medicine

The Physical Sciences Deal with matter and energy and allow us to describe the material universe in terms of weight, mass, volume, and other standard, objective measures. Physics: The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them. Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the structure of matter. Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere. The Earth Sciences Explain the phenomena of Earth, its atmosphere, and the solar system to which it belongs. Geology: The science of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical, chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is experiencing. Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean. Paleontology: The science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods. Meteorology: The science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and climate. The Life Sciences (Biology) Describe living organisms, their internal processes, and their relationship to each other and the environment. Botany: The study of plants. Zoology: The science that covers animals and animal life. Genetics: The study of heredity. Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness, disease, and injury.

Scientific Values and Attitudes It is important for us to be aware that science is based upon everyday values even as it questions our understanding of the world and ourselves. Indeed, science is in many respects the systematic application of some highly regarded human valuesopen minded, objective, flexible, curios, and persistent. Scientists did not invent any of these values, and they are not the only people who hold them. But the broad field of science does incorporate and emphasize such values and dramatically demonstrates just how important they are for advancing human knowledge and welfare. Therefore, if science is taught effectively, the result will be to reinforce such generally desirable human attitudes and values. Curious - asks and answers questions to understand at deeper levels. Cooperative - works with others for common goals and shares ideas. Flexibility - willing to change with new evidence and/ or explanation. Knowledgeable - Knows many science generalizations, concepts, and facts; understands scientific inquiry; and understands the history, nature, social, personal, and technological perspectives of science Objective - makes decisions based on facts. Open-minded - tolerates ideas and opinions of others and the importance of carefully considering ideas that may seem disquieting or at odds with what is generally believed and willing to change ideas in light of new evidence. Persistent - continues despite obstacles, warnings or setbacks. Reflective - willingly considers new ideas and evidence against previous ideas and evidence. Sensitive - considers all actions and inactions results on all living and nonliving things. Local and Foreign Scientists and Their Contributions The following scientists made significant contributions and helped push forward the frontiers in science. Filipino Scientists and Their Contributions Angel Alcala considered a world class authority in ecology and biogeography of amphibians and reptiles. He is the man behind the invention of artificial coral reefs to be used for fisheries in Southeast Asia. Doctor Arturo Alcaraz is a volcanologist specializing in geothermal energy development. In 1967, Arturo Alcaraz and team powered an electric light bulb using steam-powered electricity. Powers coming from a Volcano near the town of Tiwi. This was the first geothermal power generated in the Philippines. Gregorio Y. Zara known for his invention of two-way television telephone or videophone patented as a "photo phone signal separator network". He also invented a propeller-cutting machine, airplane engine that ran on plain alcohol as fuel and improved the methods of producing solar energy including creating new designs for a solar water heater (SolarSorber), a sun stove, and a solar battery.

Rolando de la Cruz - invented DeBCC an anti-cancer skin cream made from cashew nuts and other local herbs from the Philippines. Rolando de la Cruz's cream combats basal cell carcinoma or skin cancer without causing any side effects. Eduardo San Juan worked on the team that invented the Lunar Rover or Moon Buggy. He was also a designer for the Articulated Wheel System. Prior, to the Apollo Program and worked on the (ICBM) Intercontinental Ballistic Missile. Francisco Santos studied the nutritive values and chemical composition of local foods from the Philippines. His data was used to help detect and solve problems with Filipino diets. Doctor Fe Del Mundo is the first Filipina national scientist who is credited with studies leading to the invention of an improved incubator and a jaundice relieving device. She has been known for her dedication to child care. Roberto Del Rosario is one of the most prolific Filipino inventors besides of his famous Karaoke Sing Along System Del Rosario has patented more than twenty inventions to name a few of his inventions we have Trebel Voice Color Code (VCC). Piano tuners guide, piano key board stressing device and voice color tape. Julian Banson was known for his ingenuity and creativeness for his researched methods on producing alternative fuels using local materials. He experimented with the production of ethyl esters fuel from sugar cane and coconut, and inventing a means of extracting residual coconut oil by chemical process rather than a physical one. Edito G. Garcia Professor of Parasitology, has done research in the areas of immunology and parasitic infections. Famous Foreign Scientists and Their Contributions There are literally thousands of famous scientists who have all made very important contributions to the field of science. To name a few we have the following: Albert Einstein is one of the most famous scientists of the 20th century. Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm, Germany. He received the 1921 Nobel Peace Prize in Physics for his work on the photoelectric effect. He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically massenergy equivalence, expressed by the equation E = mc2. Marie Curie is one of the most famous scientists in the world, dedicated her life to physics and chemistry. Marie Curie was born on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland. Marie discovered radioactivity, she was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize for physics. Her achievements include the creation of a theory of radioactivity , techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two new elements, polonium and radium. It was also under her personal direction that the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms ("cancers"), using radioactive isotopes.

Galileo Galilei was referred to, in his day, as the father of modern astronomy, physics and science by various academics. One misconception that has lasted many years is that Galileo Galilei invented the telescope, which he did not. Galileo made improvements to the telescope and was one of the first to improve it enough to use it to observe the sky and revolutionized astronomy and paved the way for the acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric system. His formulation of (circular) inertia, the law of falling bodies, and parabolic trajectories marked the beginning of a fundamental change in the study of motion. Sir Isaac Newton is generally regarded as one of the greatest and most famous scientists in history. Newton was an astronomer, physicist, mathematician and philosopher who is known for theorizing and reporting on gravitational force and the three laws of motion. He laid the foundation for differential and integral calculus. His work on optics and gravitation make him one of the greatest scientists the world has known. Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astrononomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of Louis Pasteur the scientific genius who informed the world about the intricate relationship between health and diseases. He solved the mysteries of rabies, anthrax, chicken cholera, and silkworm diseases, and contributed to the development of the first vaccines. Certainly the importance of Pasteur's research can be etched on the annals of medical development, particularly the first vaccines devised for humans. He described the scientific basis for fermentation, wine-making, and the brewing of beer. He also challenged the myth on spontaneous generation, thereby setting the stage for modern biology and biochemistry. Nicolaus Copernicus was a mathematician and astronomer who first to publish a full-fledged theory that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth actually revolved around the sun. Copernicus also theorized that the earth rotated on its axis, which accounted for the daily movement of the stars. Niels Bohr a Danish scientist who won the Nobel Prize for physics in 1922 for his work in regards to understanding the structure of atoms. Bohr introduced the theory that electrons travel in an orbital path around the atom's nucleus. He also theorized that light could have properties of both a wave and a particle at the same time. Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers on the United States and an inventor credited with creating the lightning rod, glass harmonica, urinary catheter, bifocal glasses and Franklin stove. Even though Benjamin Franklin never patented any of his own inventions, he was an advocate for inventor's rights and was responsible for seeing to it that a passage was inserted into the U. S. Constitution guaranteeing limited terms for patents and copyrights. Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. Throughout his life, Bell had been interested in the education of deaf people. This interest leads him to invent the microphone and, in 1876, his "electrical speech machine," which we now call a telephone. News of his invention quickly spread throughout the country, even throughout Europe. By 1878, Bell had set up the first telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut. By 1884, long distance connections were made between Boston, Massachusetts and New York City. Graham Bell is considered a pioneer in the field of telecommunications.

Basic Science Process Skills The processes of doing science are the science process skills that scientists use in the process of doing science. Since science is about asking questions and finding answers to questions, these are actually the same skills that we all use in our daily lives as we try to figure out everyday questions. If you developed skills in basic science processes you will find it useful throughout your life. While it is possible to easily forget science content learned, process skills tend to remain with many individuals for a relatively longer period. The science process skills form the foundation for scientific methods. These basic skills are integrated together when scientists design and carry out experiments or in everyday life when we all carry out fair test experiments. All the seven basic skills are important individually as well as when they are integrated together. Figure Observing using your senses to gather information about an object or event. It is a description of what was actually perceived. This information is considered qualitative data. Qualitative Observation (using the senses) Example: Describing a ball as red. and Quantitative Observation (using exact measurement ) Example: The thickness of a book is 5 mm. Inferring - making an "educated guess" about an object or event based on previously gathered data or information. Example: Saying that the person who used a pencil made a lot of mistakes because the eraser was well worn. Measuring - using both standard and nonstandard measures and estimates to describe the dimensions of an object or event. Example: Using a ruler to measure the length of a notebook in centimeters. Communicating - using words or graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event. Example: Describing the change in height of a plant over time in writing or through a graph. Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based on properties or criteria. Example: Placing all rocks having certain grain size or hardness into one group. Predicting - stating the outcome of a future event based on a pattern of evidence Example: Predicting the height of a plant in two weeks time based on a graph of its growth during the previous four weeks. Applying you should begin to understand that people have used scientific knowledge in practical ways to change and improved the way we live. It is at this application level that science becomes meaningful for you. Activity no: Inferences and Observations An observation is anything that can be taken in through the senses. This would be things that you see, hear, taste, smell, touch, or taste. An inference is a statement that explains the observations. Suppose your friends went to camping in Laguna and saw many nocturnal animals. Which of the following statements are observations and which are inferences? Indicate your answer with either the letter O for an observation, or the letter I for an inference. 1. ________ It is vacation time. 2. ________ It is night time. 3. ________ They saw bats. 4. ________ They saw birds

5. ________ They went swimming. 6. ________ One friends name was Koreen. 7. ________ It was a cold night. 8. ________ The birds were black and white. 9. ________ They made a bonfire. 10. _______ They peoples are friends.

Chapter 2 Scientific Method Steps in Scientific Method Scientists gather information and evidence in their search for answers to questions. Scientists use a problemsolving procedure called the scientific method The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative process. Figure no.3

Ask Question

Do Background Research

Construct Hypothesis

Try Again

Test with an Experiment

Analyze results Draw Conclusion

Hypothesis is True

Hypothesis is False or Partially True

Report Results

*Note arrows represent cause and effect relationships between the steps

The Steps of Scientific Method are: Ask Question/Identify a Problem Starts when you ask question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? Gather Information/Do Background Research - Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past. Construct Hypothesis - A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work, state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, it should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question. Test with an Experiment Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be fair test. You should repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results were not just an accident. Analyze Results/Draw Conclusion Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurement and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false. Sometimes you find that your hypothesis was false, and in such cases you will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Report/Communicate Results - To complete your experiment you will communicate your results using word or graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event. Example: Describing the change in height of a plant over time in writing or through a graph. Scientific Theories and Laws In laymans term when we say theory is just a guess or a hunch, something that maybe needs proof. In science it means different thing; a theory is not a guess or a hunch. Its a well-substantiated, well-supported, well documented explanation for an observation. It ties together all the facts about something, providing an explanation that fits all the observations and can be used to make predictions. In science, theory is the ultimate goal, the explanation. Some people think that in science, you have a theory, and once it's proven, it becomes a law. That's not how it works. In science, we collect facts, or observations, we use laws to describe them, and a theory to explain them. You don't promote a theory to a law by proving it. A theory never becomes a law. An example will help you to understand this. There's a law of gravity, which is the description of gravity. It basically says that if you let go of something it'll fall. It doesn't say why. Then there's the theory of gravity, which is an attempt to explain why. Actually, Newton's Theory of Gravity did a pretty good job, but Einstein's Theory of Relativity does a better job of explaining it. These explanations are called theories, and will always be theories. They can't be changed into laws, because laws are different things. Laws describe, and theories explain. A theory is an explanation of a set of related observations or events based upon proven hypotheses and verified multiple times by detached groups of researchers. A Law is a statement of fact meant to describe, in concise terms, an action or set of actions. It is generally accepted to be true and universal, and can sometimes be expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation. Scientific laws are similar to mathematical postulates. They dont really need any

complex external proofs; they are accepted at face value based upon the fact that they have always been observed to be true. Scientific laws must be simple, true, universal, and absolute. The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamic. A law describes a single action, whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. Integrated Science Process Skills: Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes for experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable. Example: The greater the amount of fertilizer added to the soil, the greater the egg plant growth. Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an experiment. It is important to change only the variable being tested and keep the rest constant. The one being manipulated is the independent variable; the one being measured to determine its response is the dependent variable; and all variables that do not change and may be potential independent variables are constants. Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in an experiment. Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between variables in an experiment such as between the independent and dependant variables plus the standard of comparison. Controlling variables - being able to identify variables that can affect an experimental outcome, keeping most constant while manipulating only the independent variable. Example: Realizing through past experiences that amount of light and water need to be controlled when testing to see how the addition of fertilizer affects the growth of egg plant. Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials and describing appropriate steps in a procedure to test a hypothesis. Experimenting - carrying out an experiment by carefully following directions of the procedure so the results can be verified by repeating the procedure several times. Being able to conduct an experiment, including asking an appropriate question, stating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, operationally defining those variables, designing a "fair" experiment, conducting the experiment, and interpreting the results of the experiment. Example: The entire process of conducting the experiment on the affect of fertilizer on the growth of egg plants. Acquiring Data - collecting qualitative and quantitative data as observations and measurements. Example: Stating that egg plant growth will be measured in centimeters per week. Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs - making data tables and graphs for data collected. Analyzing Investigations and Data - interpreting data statistically, identifying human mistakes and experimental errors, evaluating the hypothesis, formulating conclusions, and recommending further testing where necessary. Example: Recording data from the experiment on bean growth in a data table and forming a conclusion which relates trends in the data to variables. Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships - what caused what to happen and why. Formulating Models - recognizing patterns in data and making comparisons to familiar objects or ideas. Examples: The model of how the processes of evaporation and condensation interrelate in the water cycle. Variables You use an experiment to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, you design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.

These changing quantities are called variables. A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. An experiment usually has three kinds of variables: independent, dependent, and controlled. The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist. To insure a fair test, a good experiment has only one independent variable. As you change the independent variable, you will observe what will happen. Focus your observations on the dependent variable to see how it responds to the change made to the independent variable. The new value of the dependent variable is caused by and depends on the value of the independent variable. For example, if you open a faucet (the independent variable), the quantity of water flowing (dependent variable) changes in response--you observe that the water flow increases. The number of dependent variables in an experiment varies, but there is often more than one. Experiments also have controlled variables. Controlled variables are quantities that a you wants to remain constant, and you must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables. For example, if we want to measure how much water flow increases when we open a faucet, it is important to make sure that the water pressure (the controlled variable) is held constant. That's because both the water pressure and the opening of a faucet have an impact on how much water flows. If we change both of them at the same time, we can't be sure how much of the change in water flow is because of the faucet opening and how much because of the water pressure. In other words, it would not be a fair test. Most experiments have more than one controlled variable. Some people refer to controlled variables as "constant variables."

Problem

Independent Variable Temperature of the water measured in degrees Centigrade

Independent Variable Amount of salt that dissolves completely measured in grams

Controlled Variables

Does heating a cup of water allow it to dissolve more salt?

Stirring Size of salt

"More stirring might also increase the amount of salt that dissolves and different size of salt might dissolve in different amounts, so to insure a fair test I want to keep these variables the same for each cup of water." Does organic fertilizer make a plant grow bigger? Amount of organic fertilizer measured in grams

Precision and Accuracy in Data Gathering To many people, accuracy and precision mean the same thing. However to someone involved in measurement, the two terms should have very different meanings. Accuracy:

Growth of the plant measured by its height Growth of the plant measured by the number of leaves

Growth of the plant measured by its height Growth of the plant measured by the number of leaves

The accuracy of a measurement describes how close it is to the 'real' value. See Measuring See Measuring This real value need Plant Growth for Plant Growth for not be very precise; it more ways to more ways to just needs to be the measure plant measure plant 'accepted correct growth growth value'. It is the degree of conformity with a standard (the "truth"). Accuracy relates to the quality of a result, and is distinguished from precision, which relates to the quality of the operation by which the result is obtained. Precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an operation, or the degree of perfection in the instruments and methods used to obtain a result. An indication of the uniformity or reproducibility of a result.

Precision relates to the quality of an operation by which a result is obtained, and is distinguished from accuracy, which relates to the quality of the result. Let's use a model to demonstrate the difference: Suppose you are aiming at a target, trying to hit the bull's eye (the center of the target) with each of five bullets. Here are some representative pattern of bullets in the target.

Precise, Not Accurate The bullets are clustered together but did not hit the intended mark.

Accurate, Not Precise The bullets are not clustered, but their average position is the bulls eye.

Precise and Accurate The bullets are tightly clustered and their average position is the the center of center of the bulls eye.

Qualitative and quantitative observations The primary science skills needed to gain information on something is observation. We can observe in two ways, qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative observation is used in describing things in terms of its characteristics or qualities .Qualitative observations use your senses to observe the results. (Sight, smell, touch, taste and hear.) While anything that is quantitative can be assigned meaningful numerical values. Quantitative observations are made with instruments such as rulers, balances, graduated cylinders, beakers, and thermometers. These results are measurable. Activity: Qualitative vs Quantitative Observations Read the following examples and then decide if the example is qualitative put check in a the appropriate column Observations 1. One pencil is 5 cm long. 2. She bought 10 pcs. hot pandesal. 3. The veins are 3 mm wide. 4. The champagne makes a loud Qualitative Quantitative

popping sound. 5. It smells bitter. 6. The temperature in Baguio dropped to 70C. 7.The mass of a book is 250 g. 8. The trees are tall. 9. The flower clusters in 4 blooms. 10. The surface of the table is very rough.

Measurement in Scientific Investigations Mathematics is a language of science. By measuring, scientist can quantify their observations accurately. Today, scientists need to be able to communicate with other scientists all around the world. They need a common language in which to report data. Scientist use the metric system along with its newer counterpart, the SI (system internationale) system of measurement, It was designed to make measurements and calculations as easy as possible. Once we have learned it, it is much easier to use than the English system. Table 1-1 SI Base Units Units Quantity Length Mass Time Temperature Electric current Amount of substance Luminous intensity Meter Kilogram Second Kelvin Ampere Mole Candela Symbol M Kg S K A Mol Cd

Table1-2 Prefixes Used for large Measurements Prefix Kilo mega giga Symbol K M G Meaning Thousand Million billion Multiple of base unit 1000 1000,000 1000,000,000

Table 1-3 Prefixes Used for Small Measurements Prefix decicentimillimicronanoSymbol d c m n Meaning tenth hundredth thousandth millionth billionth Multiple of base unit 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001

You noticed that the base units do not include area, volume, pressure, weight, force, speed, and other familiar quantities. Combinations of the base units, called derived units. Suppose you want to order curtain for a window measures 1.5 m long and 1 m wide. The area of a rectangle can be solve by multiplying the length and the width (A = l x w). The area of the window can be calculated as A = 1.5 m x 1 m = 1.5 m2 . The SI unit of area, m2, is a derived unit.

Notice that centimeter and kilometer each contain the word meter . When dealing with SI units, you frequently use the base unit, in this case meter, and add a prefix to indicate that quantity you are measuring is a multiple of that unit. Most SI prefixes indicate multiples of 10. Example centimeter is 1/100 of a meter. Any SI unit with the prefix centi- will be 1/100 of the base unit. A centigram is 1/100 of a gram. What about the kilometer? The prefix kilo indicates that unit is 1000 times the base unit. A kilometer is equal to 1000 meters. The factor-label method for converting units The factor-label method, also known as the unit-factor method or dimensional analysis, is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, a roll of ribbon contains 10 m. What is the length of the ribbon in centimeter? Steps: 1. List the given and unknown values. Given: length ( l ) = 10 m Unknown: length in cm = ? 2. Determine the relationships between the units. Look at conversion table and find the equivalent value of meter to centimeter. 1 cm = .01 m, also means 1m = 100 cm 3. Write the equation for the conversion. Length in cm = m x
100 cm 1 m

You will multiply because you are converting from a larger unit (m) to a smaller unit (cm). 4. Insert the known values into the equation and solve.

Length in cm = 10 m

100 cm =1000 cm 1m

*If you are converting to a smaller unit, multiply the measurement to get a bigger number. *If you are converting to a larger unit, divide the measurement to get a smaller number. *If you have done the conversions properly, all the units above and below will cancel except the units you need.

Try This: 1. Convert 5.5 Kg to g 2.

Science Connect: SI started with a metric system in France in 1795. The meter was originally defined as 10,000,000 of the distance between the North Pole and the equator. Work @ net:

Common Laboratory Apparatus and their Uses Beakers are useful as a reaction container or to hold liquid or solid samples. They are also used to catch liquids from titrations and filtrates from filtering operations. Bunsen burners - are sources of heat. Burets - are for addition of a precise volume of liquid. The volume of liquid added can be determined to the nearest 0.01 mL with practice. Clay triangles - are placed on a ring attached to a ring stand as a support for a funnel, crucible, or evaporating dish. Droppers - are for addition of liquids drop by drop Erlenmeyer flasks - are useful to contain reactions or to hold liquid samples. They are also useful to catch filtrates. Glass funnels - are for funneling liquids from one container to another or for filtering when equipped with filter paper. Graduated cylinders 0- are for measurement of an amount of liquid. The volume of liquid can be estimated to the nearest 0.1 mL with practice. Pipettes - are used to dispense small quantities of liquids Ring stand with rings or clamps - are for holding pieces of glassware in place. Test tubes - are for holding small samples or for containing small-scale reactions. Test tube holders - are for holding test tubes when tubes should not be touched Tongs - are similar in function to forceps but are useful for larger items. Volumetric flasks - are used to measure precise volumes of liquid or to make precise dilutions Wash bottles - are used for dispensing small quantities of distilled water. Wire gauze - on a ring supports beakers to be heated by Bunsen burners.

Watch glasses - are for holding small samples or for covering beakers or evaporating dishes

Safety Precautionary measures in the Laboratory Any untoward behavior in the laboratory can result in serious injury, health hazards and damage to property. Observed safety precautionary measures while working inside the laboratory Every person is expected to do their part to ensure a safe laboratory environment for themselves and others in the laboratory. Basic Laboratory Rules 1. Eating and drinking inside the laboratory is strictly prohibited. 2. Playing will not be tolerated in the laboratory. 3. Lab users must become familiar with the location and operation of the fire extinguisher and other safety devices. 4. If you have a query about how to operate a certain lab device/instrument you better consult first your science teacher before doing the experiment. Equipment that you are not familiar with should not be used, as damage may occur to the equipment and/or other individuals. 5. You should be aware of the hazards and proper handling of the different biological and/or chemical agents that you are using. 6. Keep your workspace clean and tidy. Clean up spills, broken equipment, floods and general clutter promptly. This especially applies to the area around any electrical equipment. 7. Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory and remove any gloves you are wearing.

Personal Safety The highest priority in the laboratory is personal safety. Therefore you must be sure to: Always wear eye protection (eye goggles), protective gloves and lab coat when handling corrosive chemicals or biological agents. *Gloves and lab coat are not to be worn outside the lab. 2. Always tie your hair back if you have long hair to avoid destruction and accident while doing an experiment. 3. Report all accidents immediately to your teacher.
1.

Protecting Against Chemical Hazards

1. Always add acids to water (not the other way around) to prevent boiling over and splashing. 2. Never sniff a chemical to identify its type or location. 3. Slowly mix corrosives or solvents, or dip parts into them. 4. Read the label before using any reagent. 5. NEVER pipette by mouth (even water!); use a device such as a pipette or a bulb. 6. NEVER taste chemicals and smell them only cautiously. 7. NEVER pour chemicals down the sink without first consulting your teacher. Fire Safety 1. Keep open vessels of solvent away from sources of heat or sparks. 2. NEVER use open flames, unless authorized to do so by your teacher. 3. Extinguish small fires in beakers by excluding air with a large beaker or book. 4. If your clothing is on fire: Stop, drop and roll on the floor to smother the flames. 5. Help others to smother any flames with a coat, fire blanket, towel, or anything available. Often, if somebody starts a fire, they are stunned and will not act quickly enough to take corrective action. 6. Know where the fire extinguisher is located. 7. Know where the fire exits are. 8. Check all electrical equipment before you turn the power on. If the apparatus appears defective, call your Supervisor or his/her designate. 9. If the fire alarm is activated, turn off all electrical and gas sources, and leave the building. Remain outside until the alarm stops ringing. Waste Disposal 1. Dispose of waste solvents in waste bottles. *If there is a question with respect to proper disposal of chemical or biological wastes, ask your science teacher. http://nobel.scas.bcit.ca/debeck_pt/science/safety.htm

picture (side)

laboratory icon

Measuring instruments Reading a Balance for Mass Before using the balance, always check to see if the pointer is resting at zero. If the pointer is not at zero, check the riders. If all the riders are at zero, turn the zero adjust knob until the pointers rest at zero.

Figure

Measuring solid Place a piece of weighing paper on the movable pan. Determine the mass of the paper by adjusting the riders on the various scales. Record the mass of the weighing paper to the nearest 0.01 g. Then add the mass you wish to obtain by sliding the appropriate riders on the scales. For ex., if your weighing paper has a mass of 0.20 g, the balance reads 0.20 g. To measure 15 g of solids, you then need to add 15 g to this mass. Do this by sliding the 10 gram rider to 10 and the 1-gram rider to 5. Slowly add the solid onto weighing paper until the balance is once again balanced. *Never place chemicals or hot objects directly on the pan.

*You must subtract the mass of the weighing paper from its final mass to determine the solids mass.

Measuring Temperature When working with any thermometer, it is especially important to pay close attention to the precision of the instrument. Most alcohol thermometers are marked in intervals of 1 0C. The intervals are usually so close together that it is impossible to estimate temperature values measured with such thermometer to any precision than a half dgree, 0.5 0C. Thus, if you are using this type of thermometer, it would be impossible to actually measure like 27.15 0C. It is also very important to keep your eye at about the same levels as the colored fluid in the thermometer. If youre looking at the thermometer from below, the reading you see will appear a degree or two lower than it really is. Similarly, if you look at the thermometer from above, the reading will seem to be a degree or two higher than it really is. Figure - thermometer reading

Reading Volume of Liquids To have accurate volume measurements, you should use a graduated cylinder or a burette, (they are marked in smaller increments than of beakers). Most liquids have a concave surface that forms in a burette or graduated cylinder. This concave surface is called meniscus. When measuring the volume of a liquid, you must consider the meniscus. Always measure the volumes from the bottom of the meniscus. The markings on a graduated cylinder or burette are designed cylinder to take into account the water that extends along the walls slightly above the markings lines. *opaque liquids read the upper meniscus *transparent liquids read the lower meniscus Figure (side) - graduated cylinder showing the meniscus

Significant Figures Any time a measurement is recorded, it includes all the digits that are certain plus one uncertain digit. These uncertain digits plus the one uncertain digit referred to as significant figures. The more digits you are able to record in a measurement, the less relative uncertainty there is in the measurement. Rules of significant figures: 1. All non -zero digits are significant. Example: 77.8 cm has three significant figures. 2. All zeros between non-zero digits are significant. Example: 8.009 cm. has four significant figures. 3. All zeros to the right of all other digits and to the right of the decimal point are significant. Example: 5.700 cm has four significant figures. 4. All zeros to the left or directly to the right of the decimal point are not significant. Ex. 0.07 cm has only one significant figure. (The zeros merely mark the position of the decimal point). In case of 0.070 cm it has two significant figures. The first two zeros mark the position of the decimal point. The final zero is significant.

Table1-1 Significant figures Measurement 789 4005 7.250 .0012 0.1200 No. of significant figures 3 4 4 2 4 Rule 1 2 3 4 4

Significant Digits in Calculations: When you do calculations involving numbers that do not have the same number of significant figures in each, it is important to keep these two rules in mind:

Rule no. 1 Addition and Subtraction The sum or difference should be rounded to the same number of decimal places as in the quantity having the least number of decimal places.

Example 1 4.576 g 5.6 g +2.34 g Total = Example 2 4.576 g Unrounded answer = 2.246 g. Answer rounded to the correct - 2.33 g number of significant figures = 2.25 g. One of the quantities Difference = has only two decimal places so the answer should be rounded to two decimal places. Rule no.2 Multiplication and Division The number of significant figures in a product or quotient obtained from manipulating figures of measured quantities is the same as the significant figures in the quantity having the smallest number of significant figures. Solution: Unrounded answer = 12.516 g. Answer rounded to the correct number of significant figures = 12.5 g. One of the quantities added has only one decimal place. Therefore, the answer should be rounded to only one decimal place.

Example 1 2.35 cm x 1.25 cm = Solution: Unrounded answer = 2.9375 cm2. Answer rounded to the correct number of significant figures = 2. 94 cm2 Both measured quantities have three significant figures. Therefore, the answer should be rounded to three figures. Example 2 2.35 x 1.2 = Solution: Unrounded answer = 2.82 cm2. Answer rounded to the correct number of significant figures= 3 cm2 One of the measured quantities has only two significant figures. Therefore, the answer should be rounded to two significant figures.

Example 3 8.55 cm2/2.20 cm = Solution: Unrounded answer = 3.8863636 cm. Answer rounded to the correct number of Significant figures = 3.89 cm. Both measured quantities have three significant figures.

Activity: Calculating Using Significant Figures A. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements: _____1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. 57.05 mL 0.005607 Kg 3004 cm 789.00 m 2130 Km _____6. 3400 g _____7. 1207 L _____8. 0.1400 dm _____9. 5000 cm _____10. 0.1 m

B. Perform each of the following calculations, and give your answer with the correct number of significant figures. _____1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. 0.005 dm + 0.75601 dm 440 m 0.1234 m 45.2 Kg 0.2534 Kg 2.05 g 0.05 g 2.04 mL + 0.022 mL _____6. .09 cm x 22.2 cm _____7. 1.5 L .5 L _____8. 500 mm .25 mm _____9. .890 g + 8.9 g _____10. .45 dm x 1.5 dm

Scientific Notations Scientific Notation is very useful in reporting a very large or very small number. Scientists report numbers from literally astronomical to almost infinitesimal. In order to do so conveniently, we use scientific notation, also known as standard exponential notation. Scientific notation is a form of a number with a decimal coefficient times a power of 10. The following number is in scientific notation, with its parts identified:

base exponent \ / 5.123 104 / \ exponential part Coefficient A number in scientific notation has a coefficient that is 1 or more but less than 10, and it has an integral exponent, which may be positive, zero, or negative. With large numbers such as 4,560, 000 move the decimal point to the left until one digit remains to the left (4.560000) and then indicate the number of moves of the decimal point as the exponent of 10 giving you 4.56 x

106. With a very small number such as 0.000000789, move the decimal point to the right until one digit is left 0000007.89 and then express the number of moves as the negative exponent of 10 giving you 7.89 x 10-7. Activity: Scientific Notation Scientist very often deals with very small and very large numbers which can lead to a lot of confusion when counting zeros! We have learned to express these numbers as powers of 10. Ex.1 Convert 1,700,000 to scientific notation. Move the decimal point so that there is only one digit to its left, a total of 6 places. 1,700,000 = 1.7 x 106 Ex. 2 Convert 0.00097 to scientific notation. For this, move the decimal point 4 places to the right. 0.00097 = 9.5 x 104 *Note that when a number starts out less than one, the exponent is always negative A. Covert the following to scientific notation 1. 0.0006 _____________ 6. 0.057 2. 7,050 _____________ 7. 0.00057 3. 0.0009 _____________ 8. 0.003 4. 2,000 _____________ 9. 400 5. 4,000,000 _____________ 10. 8,000 B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Convert the following to standard notation 1.6 x 103 _____________ 6. 2.55 x 10-1 -3 1.6 x 10 _____________ 7. 1.7 x 10-4 2.87 x 10-4 _____________ 8. 1 x 104 2 5.9 x 10 _____________ 9. 1 x 10-1 9.7 x 105 _____________ 10. 4 x 100 ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

Analysis of Data Making Inferences

Making an inference involves using what you know to make a guess about what you don't know, or reading between the lines. You make inferences by means of observation and relating them with your own personal experiences. Picture a scenario

Study the picture thoroughly and give as many inferences as you can.

What is happening in the picture? What the picture is advertising? What the story will be about? Think aloud as you make connections between the facts and your prior knowledge. Data Presentation An experiment always involves the gathering of data. To make meaningful data presentation, you must start with clear principles about how are you going to communicate your data, know your purpose, what identifies it when it does work. Any presentation of data that you preparewhether in the form of tables or graphs is only successful to the degree that it communicates to your target audience what you intend for it to communicate. Did your message get through? Was the data understood, accurately and efficiently? Tables work best when the data presentation: 1. Is used to look up individual values 2. Is used to compare individual values 3. Requires precise values. 4. Values involve multiple units of measure. Graphs work best when the data presentation 1. Is used to communicate a message that is contained in the shape of the data 2. Is used to reveal relationships among many values. (Source: Stephen Few, Common mistakes in data presentation)

Graphs

Graphs are a useful tool in science. The visual characteristics of a graph make trends in data easy to see. One of the most valuable uses for graphs is to "predict" data that is not measured on the graph. Extrapolate: extending the graph, along the same slope, above or below measured data. Interpolate: predicting data between two measured points on the graph. Graphs are often an excellent way to display your results. In fact, most good science experiment / fair projects have at least one graph. Different types of graphs are designed to communicate different types of messages. These are just a few of the possible types of graphs: Line graphs In an experiment, you will usually be controlling one variable and seeing how it affects another variable. Line graphs can show these relations clearly. To create a line graph, do the following steps: 1. Identify the variables - Independent Variable on the X axis (horizontal), Dependent the Y axis (vertical) Variable - Goes on

2. Determine the variable range - Subtract the lowest data value from the highest data value. Do each variable separately. 3. Determine the scale of the graph - Determine a scale that best fits the range of each variable. Spread the graph to use MOST of the available space. 4. Number and label each axis - This tells what data the lines on your graph represent. 5. Plot the data points - Plot each data value on the graph with a dot. You can put the data number by the dot, if it does not clutter your graph. 6. Draw the graph - Draw a curve or a line that best fits the data points. Most graphs of experimental data are not drawn as "connect-the-dots". 7. Title the graph - Your title should clearly tell what the graph is about. If your graph has more than one set of data, provide a "key" to identify the different lines.

Bar graphs

A bar graph is a visual display used to compare the amounts or frequency of occurrence of different characteristics of data. This type of display allows us to compare groups of data, and to make generalizations about the data quickly. To make a bar graph, do the following steps: 1. Draw two perpendicular axes on a grid paper. Label each axes to identify variables. 2. Choose a scale that will permit the full range of values to be graphed. Mark one axis with equal interval. 3. Mark the axis with equal intervals. These intervals do not have to match those used on the other axis. 4. Using the data values, carefully find the height of each bar for each item. Draw and shade each bar. Be sure to leave space between your bars. Pie Graphs Pie graphs are an easy way to visualize how many parts make a whole. Usually, pie charts are made from percentage data. They are useful for analyzing polls, statistics, and managing time or money. For example, you want to create a pie graph showing the different gases of earths atmosphere. 1. Organize your data - First gather your data. 2. Add it all together - Add all of the numbers to get a denominator. 3. Then find the numerator - Find the numerators by taking each part of the data, these are your numerators. 4. 5. 6. Convert your fractions to a decimal - Divide your numerator by your denominator. Convert the decimal to a percent - Move the decimal two places to the right. Find the angle - Multiply the decimal by 360 (degrees in a circle), or multiply the percent by 3.60 to get an angle.

7. Use a mathematical compass to draw a circle - If you don't have a compass, try tracing something round such as a lid or a CD.

8. Draw the radius - Start in the exact center of the circle and draw a radius to the outside of it. ( Hint: make a dot with the compass to find the center. ) 9. Place your protractor on the circle - Place your protractor on the circle so that the 90 degrees are directly above the center of the circle. 10. Draw each section - Draw the sections by using the angles you got in step six. Each time you add a section the radius changes to the line you just drew. * Remember that all good graphs have a title and labels. *Add the name of the sections and the percent they represent to the chart. *Color each section of the pie chart a different color to easily visualize the results. *If you do not have a very good compass, it is easier to draw the circle by holding the compass still and turning the paper.

Sample types of graph insert on the side

Activity no. Scientific Method Put the following steps of the scientific method in the proper order. ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ Make a hypothesis. Identify the problem Test the hypothesis Arrive at a conclusion Report your result Background research

Activity no. CAN YOU SPOT THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Each sentence below describes a step of the scientific method. Match each sentence with a step of the scientific method listed below. A. Recognize a problem B. Form a hypothesis C. Test the hypothesis with an experiment

D. Draw conclusions _____1. Robert predicted that seeds would start to grow faster if an electric current traveled through the soil in which they were planted. _____2. Faith Ann said, If I fertilize my rose plants, they will blossom. _____3. Angeline wondered if dyes could be taken out of plant leaves, flowers, and stems. _____4. Rob experiment proved that earthworms move away from light. _____5. Emman said, If acid rain affects plants in a particular lake, it might affect small animals, such as crayfish, that live in the same water. ____ 6. Jonys data showed that household cockroaches moved away from raw cucumber slice ____ 7. Mira said, If I grow five seedlings in red light, I think the plants will grow faster than the five plants grown in white light. _____8. Kathy read about growing plants in water. He wanted to know how plants could grow without soil. _____9. Ej soaked six different kinds of seeds in water for 24 hours. Then she planted the seeds in soil at a depth of I cm. She used the same amount of water, light, and heat for each kind of seed. ____ 10. Ayra bells experiment showed that chicken eggshells were stronger when she gave the hen feed, to which extra calcium had been added. Activity no. Designing an Experiment using Scientific Method Many commercials and advertisements make promises about a product. For example, a specific brand of anti dandruff shampoo will promise to remove your dandruff in one use or a detergent will take out tough stains. Watch TV commercials and chose one problem that you want to test. Use the scientific method to come up with an experiment and draw conclusion. What is the best way to test if the product keeps its promise? You can ask help to any members of your family to write down an experimental plan, record data, and draw a conclusion. Share your findings with your family and to your classmates during the oral presentation. Use your creativity in presenting your experiment (ex. power point presentation, video presentation).

Activity no. QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE WORK SHEET Determine which of the following statements are quantitative and which are qualitative. 1. _____________ The cup had a mass of 454 grams. 2. _____________ The temperature inside the room is 27 0C. 3. _____________ It is cold outside. 4. _____________ The plant is 2 feet tall. 5. _____________ The house has 2 stories. 6. _____________ The building is taller than the tree.

7. _____________ The sidewalk is short. 8. _____________ The sidewalk is 100 meters long. 9. _____________ The race was over quickly. 10. ____________ The competition was over in 15 minutes. Activity no. Making Measurements Materials: Metric ruler, graduated cylinder, balance, thermometer, string, board eraser, table sugar, three different test tubes, water, a small piece of stone I. Measuring temperature II. Measuring Length 1. Measure the length, width, and height of a board eraser in centimeters. Record the measurements in a table below. Using the equation below, calculate the volume of the board eraser in cubic centimeters (cm3), and write the volume in the table. Volume = length (cm) x width (cm) x height (cm) V= l x w x h, V= cm3 Repeat the measurements twice and record your data in your table. Find the average of your measurements and the average of the volume you calculated. Table 1-2 Dimension of a board eraser Trials 1 2 3 Average III. Measuring the Circumference a. To measure the circumference of a ball, wrap a string around the ball and mark the end point. Measure the length of the string using the metric ruler. Record your measurements in the table below. b. Using a different piece of string each time make two or more measurements of the circumference of the ball, and record your data on the table. c. Find the average of the three values and calculate the difference, if any, of each of your measurements from the average. Length (cm) Width (cm) Height (cm) Volume (cm3)

1.

Table 1-3 Circumference of a ball Trials 1 2 3 Average IV. Measuring Mass 1. Place a small beaker on the balance, and measure the mass. Record the value in the table below. Measure to the nearest 0.01 g if you are using a triple beam balance and to the nearest 0.1 g if your using a platform balance. 2. Move the rider to a setting that will give a value 5 g more than the mass of the beaker. Add table sugar to the beaker a little at a time until balance just begins to swing. You have about 5 g of sugar in the beaker. Complete the measurements (to the nearest 0.01 or 0.1 g), and record the total mass of the beaker from the total mass to find the mass of sugar. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 two times, and record your data in your table. Find the averages of your measurements, as indicated in the table. Table 1-4 Mass of Table Sugar Trials 1 2 3 Average Mass of beaker and table sugar (g) Mass of Beaker (g) Mass of table sugar (g) Circumference (cm) Difference from average (cm)

V. Measuring Volume 1. Fill one of the test tubes with water. Pour the water into a 25 mL graduated cylinder. 2. The top of the column of water in the graduated cylinder will have a downward curve. The curve is called meniscus (shown in the figure at right). Take your reading at the lower meniscus. Record the capacity of the test tube in the table below. Measure the capacity of the other test tubes and record. Find the average capacity of the three test tubes.

Table 1-5 Liquid Volume Test Tube 1 2 3 Average Volume (mL)

VI. Measuring Volume by Water Displacement Method 1.Pour about 10 mL water into the 25 mL graduated cylinder. Record the volume as precise as you can in the table below. 2. Gently drop a small stone into graduated cylinder; be careful not to splash any water out of the cylinder. You may find it easier to tilt the cylinder slightly and let the object slide down the side. You can determine the volume of the stone by subtracting the initial volume of the water from the final volume. * Final volume can obtained after dropping the stone Volumestone = Vf - Vi

Trials 1 2 3 Average

Initial Volume

Final Volume

Volume of the stone

Analyzing Your Results 1. On a bond paper make a line graph of the temperatures that were measured with the wall thermometer over time. Did the temperature change during the class period? If it did, find the average temperature, and determine the highest and lowest temperature that you observed. 2. Make a bar graph using the data from three calculations of the mass of table sugar. Indicate the average value of the three determinations by drawing a line represents

Questions: 2. Why is it better to align the metric ruler with the edge of the object at the 0 mark rather than at the end of the ruler? 3. Why is it better to place the metric ruler on edge with the scale resting on the surface being measured than on the flat side? 4. Why do you think it is better to measure the circumference of the ball using string than to use a flexible metal measuring tape?

Activity no. Laboratory Activity Match the following names of laboratory instruments and equipment with the correct picture. a. test tube b. beaker c. graduated cylinder d. balance e. funnel f. Erlenmeyer flask g. tongs h. wire gauze i. watch glass j. pipette k. ring stand l. clay triangle

DRAWING

Activity no. Safety in the Laboratory What is wrong in the following pictures

1 _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

2. ___________________ ___________________ ____________________

3. ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

4. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

5. ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

6. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Activity no. Graphing of Data Graphing is a very important tool in Science since it enables us to see trends that are not always obvious. Graph the following data and answer the questions below. Mass of liquid (g) 20 100 75 40 10 Volume of liquid (cm3) 4 20 15 8 2

Chapter 3 Sun- Moon- Earth System Physical features of planet earth The blue- and green planet Scientist believes the Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. It is one of the eight planets that travel in a path called orbit around the sun. Like some of the other planets, it is vast mass of rock, wrapped around with a thin layer of gases, called the atmosphere. It has one satellite, the Moon; the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet. Earth is a unique planet for at a distance, it looks like a blue and green jewel hanging in space. It is called blue planet because of the huge amounts of water in the oceans. Water makes possible it possible for Earth to have millions of different kinds of living things. It is called green planet because, it has water that supports life, it also has atmosphere rich with oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, and moderate temperatures that are stable around the globe. The earth is not perfectly round; it is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Earths diameter at the equator is 12,756 km, but only 12,712 at the North and south poles. All the light, heat, and energy on earth come from the sun. Effects of earths motion What happens when the Earth moves?

The earth spins around itself like a top. Earths axis is an imaginary line that runs through the center of earth from North Pole to the South Pole. The spinning motion of the earth on its axis is called rotation. Earth rotates in a counter clockwise direction. The earth makes one complete rotation in 23 hours and 56 minutes. As the earth turns different parts of the earth face the Sun. This movement causes days and nights on Earth. The part that faces the Sun has Day, and the part that is away from the Sun has Night. As the Earth rotates on its axis it also travels in its orbit around the sun. The movement of Earth around the sun is called revolution. The Earth revolves around the Sun at a distance of about 93 million miles (150 Km). On a complete orbit it travels about 590 million miles (950 Km). Each orbit lasts about 365.25 days-one year. As the earth revolves about the sun, earth rotates on its axis, which is tilted 23.50 from the perpendicular latitude on earths orbital plane. This tilt, along with Earths movement around the sun, causes the seasons. We have mainly four different seasons:

F I G U R E Earths rotation and revolution

Moon-Earth system Phases of the moon

F I G U R E - Phases of the moon

New Moon - The new moon is the phase of the moon when the moon is not visible from Earth, because the side of the moon that is facing us is not being lit by the sun. The Moon is not visible except during a solar eclipse.

Waxing Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.

First Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.

Full Moon - The Moon's illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be completely illuminated by direct sunlight.

Waning Gibbous - The Moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Last Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing

Waning Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Tides and Eclipse Figure- Lunar and Solar Eclipse

Eclipse

Figure Neap tide and Spring tide

Solar system The solar system comprises the sun and the entourage of celestial objects gravitationally bound into it: the eight planets, their 162 known moons, three currently identified dwarf planets and their four known moons, and thousand of small bodies. This last category includes asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and interplanetary dust. In decision passed by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) General Assembly on August 24, 2006, the objects in the solar system other than the Sun and natural satellites were divided into three separates groups: planets, dwarf planets and small solar system bodies. A planet is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. . Eight objects in the solar system currently meet this definition; they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The key difference between planets and dwarf planets is that while both are required to orbit the sun and be of large enough mass that their own gravity pulls them into a nearly round shape, dwarf planets are not required to clear neighborhood of other celestial bodies. Pluto now falls into the dwarf planet category on account of its size and the fact that it resides within a zone of other similarly-sized objects known as the transneptunian region. Three objects in the solar system are currently included in this category; they are Pluto, the asteroid Ceres, and the scattered disc object Eris. The IAU will begin evaluating other known objects to see if they fit within the definition of dwarf planets and the candidates are some of the larger asteroids and several Trans-neptunian objects such as Sedna, Orcus, and Quaor. The remainder of the objects in the solar system were classified as small solar system bodies (SSSBs). As the AIU noted in its resolution. *Astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the sun. One AU = 150 million Km (about 93 million miles.
Planet Features
Mercury 4,879 km. (3,032 mi.)
Surface

Venus
12,104 km. (7,521 mi.) Smooth plains, huge hills, volcanoes

Earth
12,756 km. (7,926 mi.) Rocky with oceans, plains, mountains,

Mars
6,794 km. (4,221 mi.) Mostly desert with highlands, lowlands,

Jupiter
142,984 km. (88,850 mi.) Gases

Saturn
120,536 km. (74,901 mi.) Gases

Uranus
51,118 km. (31,764 mi.) Gases

Neptune 49,528 km. (30,776 mi.) Gases

Rocky with craters, cliffs & plains

& craters
Surface Temperature
Atmosphere

volcanoes & craters 15 C (59 F) Nitrogen, oxygen & water vapor

craters & volcanoes -65 C (-85 F) Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen & dust -110 C (166 F) Hydrogen, helium, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia & methane 63 yes 778,600,000 km. (483,800,00 0 mi.) 9 earth hrs; 55 minutes -140 C (-220 F) Hydrogen, helium, sulfur, nitrogen & oxygen -195 C (-319 F) Methane -200 C (-328 F)

167 C (332 F) none

464 C (867 F) Carbon dioxide & nitrogen with clouds of sulfuric acid 0 no 108,200,00 0 km. (67,235,480 mi.) 243 earth days

Methane

Moons Rings Distance from the Sun

0 no 57,900,000 km. (35,985,27 4 mi.) 58.6 earth days

1 no 149,600,00 0 km. (92,961,440 mi.) 23 hrs; 56 minutes

2 no 227,900,000 km. (141,633,26 0 mi.) 24 earth hrs; 37 earth minutes 687 earth days Is called the red planet; iron oxides is present on its surface Is home to Olympus Mons, the largest mountain in the solar system

46 yes 1,433,500,00 0 km. (890,735,600 mi.) 10 earth hrs; 39 earth minutes 29.5 earth yrs.

27 yes 2,872,500,00 0 km. (1, 784, 888, 75 mi.)

13 yes 4,495,100,000km. (2,793,125,646 mi.)

Length of Day

17 earth hrs; 147 earth minutes 84 earth yrs.

16 earth hrs.

Length of Year

88 earth days Has extremely daily temp. range of 300 F to 800 F Have signs of ancient volcanic act.

224.7 earth days Has an axis that tilted on its side Rotates clockwise like Pluto & Uranus

365.25 earth days Is called the blue planet; water covered more than 2/3 of its surface The only planet known to have life as we known it

11.9 earth yrs. Has a great red spot thought to be a 400 yr.-old hurricane Four of Jupiters moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, & Callisto) were discovered by Galileo in 1610

164.8 earth yrs.

Further Facts

Has prominent rings that are made of rock & ice particles. Has a yellow color that comes from sulfur

Has an axis that is almost tilted on its side. Rotates clockwise like Venus & Pluto

Gives off more heat than it gets from the sun. Has a great dark spot thought to be a hole in its atmosphere

The Inner Planets The four inner planets or terrestrial planets are small, dense, rocky, with few moons, and lack of ring system. Mercury

Mercury is smallest and closest planet to the Sun. Its size is about one-third the size of the Earth and its average distance from the sun is 0.39 AU. The surface of mercury has many craters and a fractured crust because of its very thin atmosphere. Mercury has no natural satellite. It moves at about 48 km/s that make it fastest traveling planet in the solar system. It takes 88 Earth days Mercury complete one orbit around the sun. However it has a very long day, taking 58 Earth days to turn once on its axis. The lack of a thick atmosphere causes extremes temperatures on Mercury. The side facing the Sun reaches about 4300C (8060F). On the other side not facing the sun, the temperature drops to about -1800C (-2920F). No other place in the solar system has temperatures that vary as much as mercury.

Venus Venus is the second planet from the sun and its about the same size as Earth. It has an average distance from the sun about 0.72 AU. It is the closest planet to Earth. Venus has no natural satellite. It revolves around the sun once every 225 Earth days, but takes 243 Earth days to rotate on its axis. This means that its day is longer than its year! Venuss axis is tilted on its side. The planet rotates in the opposite direction from other planets. Venus has a dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The temperature on Venus has almost the same temperature on both day and night sides of the planet-about 4600C (8600F), which is hot enough to melt lead. It is the hottest planet in the solar system. The high temperature is cause by a phenomenon known as the green house effect. Venus has been called earths twin because of its size and being very close to earth .Venus is also known as the Evening and Morning Star as it is the first object seen at night and the last object seen in the morning. Venus is the third brightest object in the night sky. Earth Earth is the third and largest of the inner planets, and the only planet in the solar system we know on which life exists. Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and the last inner planet. Mars is about half size the size of Earth and has two small rocky moons (Deimos and Phobos). Its average distance from the sun is 1.52 AU. Marss orbit is very elliptical, so the distance between Mars and the sun varies greatly. Mars takes about 687 Earth days to revolve around the sun and 24.6 Earth hours to rotate on its axis. It has a thin atmosphere made mostly of carbon dioxide. Mars has a tilted axis so, like Earth. Temperatures in the Martian winter reach about -1250C (-1930F). During the Martian summer, temperatures can reach about 220C (about 720F). There is evidence that Mars once had liquid water. Mars has a canyon system larger than the Grand Canyon that was carved by water millions of years ago. Today there is no liquid water on the surface of Mars the water is frozen in its polar Icecaps and in its crust. Asteroid Belt Asteroids are mostly small solar system bodies that are composed in significant part of rocky and metallic non-volatile minerals objects orbiting the sun. A region known as the Asteroid Belt separates the Inner and Outer planets it is located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It takes three to six Earth years for an

asteroid to orbit the sun. Most asteroid are less than 1 km (about 0.62 miles) in diameter. Astronomers have identified about 20,000 asteroids have many different shapes, from oval to very irregular. Astronomers think that the asteroids are material left over from the formation of the solar system. An asteroid can be pulled out of its orbit by gravity of a planet. Then the asteroid may become a moon of that planet. Asteroids are sometimes called minor planets. Ceres is the largest astronomical body in the asteroid belt and the only dwarf planet in this region. It has a diameter of slightly less than 1000 Km, large enough for its own gravity to pull it into spherical shape.

The Outer Planets Beyond the asteroid belt are the four outer planets, - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They are much larger than the inner planet and they are composed mainly of the gases helium and hydrogen, so these four planets are known as the gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets). None of the gas giants has a solid surface, but they have small, dense cores of metal. All of the gas giants have rings around them. They have also many moons. The outer planets distance from the sun makes them much colder than the inner planets. All outer planets have temperature below 1000C (-1480F). Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun, is so large that all the other planets could fit inside it. Its composition of largely hydrogen and helium is not very different from of that of the sun. Jupiters strong internal heat creates a number of semi permanent features in its atmosphere, such as clouds bands and the Great Red Spot. Its Great Red Spot is a giant storm that is larger than Earth. Jupiters average distance from the sun is 5.2 AU. This planet takes more than 11 Earth years to orbit the Sun, but it takes just under 10 Earth hours to rotate on its axis. The four largest of its 63 satellites, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa (the Galilean satellites) shares elements in common with the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the solar system has a diameter larger than mercury. Saturn Saturn is sixth planet from the Sun and second of the large gas giants. Saturn is second in size to Jupiter and is comprised mostly of the same gases, and like Jupiter, Saturns has bands of clouds rotating around the planet. Saturns average distance from the sun is 9.54 AU. Saturn is the planet known for its elaborate ring system. A ring is a disk made of small particles of rock and ice in orbit around a planet. Two of its 56 moons, titan and Enceladus, show signs of geologic activity, though they are made of ice. Titan, like Ganymede, is larger than Mercury. Saturn takes more than 29 Earth years to orbit the Sun, but the planet takes only 10.7 Earth hours to rotate on its axis. Uranus Uranus is the lightest of the outer planets. It is four times larger than Earth. Uranuss average distance from the sun is 19.2 AU. At this distance, the planet takes 84 Earth years to orbit the sun. Uranus is unique compared to other planet because it orbits the Sun on its side: its axial tilt lies at over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It takes Uranus 17.25 Earth hours to rotate once. Its core is remarkably cold compared with other gas

giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has 27 satellites, the largest being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda. Its atmosphere is composed mostly of gas. Hydrogen and helium are the most dominant gas in Uranus atmosphere. An abundance of Methane gas gives it a blues color. The great dark spot is a huge storm in Neptunes blue atmosphere. Unlike the rest of the planets Uranus does not spin around its polar axis in a vertical manner, but rather rotates horizontally that gives Uranus the appearance of rolling in space around the Sun.

Neptune Neptune is the eight planet from the Sun. It is slightly smaller than Uranus, is denser at 17 Earth masses, and radiates more internal heat than Uranus, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptunes average distance from the Sun is 30 AU. This planet takes 165 Earth years to orbit the Sun, but takes only a little more than 16 Earth hours to rotate on its axis. Like Uranus, Neptune has methane in its atmosphere, which gives it its blue color. Uranus has 13 satellites, the largest, Triton, is geologic active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen, and is the only large satellite to revolve around its host planet in retrograde motion.

Kuipers Belt Objects The area beyond Neptune, often referred to as outer solar system or simply the Trans-Nuptian region. This regions first formation is the Kuiper belt, a great ring of debris similar to asteroid belt, a region of icy space objects and far greater in extent, extending between 30 AU and 50 Au from the sun. This region is thought to be the place of origin for short- period comets, such as Halleys comet. Pluto (39 AU), is now classified as dwarf planets. Dwarf planets are nearly round and orbit the Sun, just as true planets do. But unlike true planets, dwarf planets do not have enough mass to clear, or sweep up all other bodies in their orbit. Pluto is located in the kuiper belt. Pluto is the largest known object in the Kuiper Belt. Plutos orbit is relatively eccentric it is inclined 170 to the ecliptic plane. Charon was considered a moon of Pluto and its mass is about one-tenth the mass of Pluto. Charon does not exactly orbit Pluto in traditional sense. Pluto has more two smaller moons, Nix and Hydra. Those Kuiper belt objects which share this orbit with Pluto are called Plutinos. Eris is the largest known scattered disc object and was the cause of the most recent debate about what constitutes a planet since it is at least 5% larger than Pluto with an estimated diameter of 2400 Km (1500 mi). it is now the largest of the known dwarf planets. Eris was found to have a satellite, which was later named Dysnomia. Eris also orbits within the transneptunian region - a region that has not been cleared out. Another dwarf planet, called Ceres, located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Astronomer expects that more objects may classify as dwarf planets in the future.

Scattered Disc Overlapping the Kuiper belt but extending much farther outwards is the Scattered disc. Scattered disc objects are belied to have been originally native of Kuiper belt, but were ejected into erratic orbits in the outer fringes by the gravitational influence of Neptunes early outward migration. Some astronomers, such as Kuiper belt co-discoverer David Jewitt, consider the scattered disc to be merely another region of the Kuiper belt, and describes scattered disc objects as scattered Kuiper belt objects

Dwarf Planets The IAU currently recognizes five dwarf planetsCeres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.
Dwarf Planet Region of Solar System Orbital radius (AU) Orbital period (years) Equatorial diameter (km) Mass (1021 kg) Density (103g/m) Rotation period (days) Moons Surfac e temp. (K) Atmosphere

Ceres

Asteroid belt

2.77

4.60

974.63.2

0.95

2.08

0.38

167

none

Pluto

Kuiper belt

2.77

248.09

230630

13.05

2.0

-6.39

44

transient

Haumea

Kuiper belt

43.34

285.4

1150+250100

4.2 0.1

2.63.3

32 3

Makemake

Kuiper belt

45.79

309.9

1500+400200

~4?

~2?

~30

transient?

Eris

Scattered disc

67.67

557

2400100

16.7

2.3

~0.3

42

transient?

Comets and Meteors Picture of comets

Comets are frozen chunk of ice, gas and dust that regularly orbits the sun. If a comets orbit carries it close to the Sun, its icy surface begins to sublimate, or boil away creating a coma; a long tail of gas and dust which is often visible with the naked eye. The tail always points away from the Sun. Most comets are thought to come from huge spherical region of icy objects called that surrounds our solar system. Comets are named for their discoverers. Halleys Comet was first recorded in 240 B.C. Halley predicted the comets return in 1758 based on its previous appearances. It has returned every 75 to 76 years. The theorized Oort cloud, is a great mass to a trillion icy objects that is believed to be the source for a long-period comets and to surround the solar system. It is believed to be composed of comets which were ejected from the inward Solar System by them is so weak, Oort cloud objects move only very slowly, though they can be perturbed by such rare events as collisions, or the gravitational effects of a passing star or the galactic tides. As with Ceres, the next three largest objects in the main asteroid belt Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea[44] could eventually be classified as dwarf planets. It is suspected that at least another 40 known objects in the Solar System are dwarf planets, and estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region known as the Kuiper belt is explored, and that the number might be as high as 2000 when objects scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered.

Picture of meteores

Meteoroids are pieces of rock or metal, much smaller than an asteroid, traveling in space. Most meteoroids are about the size of a pebble. They travel around the sun in a variety of orbits and at various speeds. Meteors are meteoroids that reach Earths atmosphere. There are about 25 million meteors visible to the unaided eye occur every 24 hours over the entire planet. When Earth passes through a swarm of these fragments they burn up, and glows, forming a meteor shower. Sometimes a meteor does not burn completely in the atmosphere. The remaining part that hits the Earths surface is called meteorites.

Beyond the solar system What Are Stars? A Star is a huge ball of hot gases that emits light. Stars generate energy through nuclear fusion in their cores. Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which atoms of lighter elements fuse, or combine, to form atoms of another,

heavier elements. Nuclear fusion reactions combine the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium with release of energy. Star Characteristics Distance Magnitude The Birth and Death of Stars figure

All stars go through the same steps to become red giants, but what happens next depends on a star mass. A star is born in a cloud of gas and dust called nebula. As the particles in the cloud begin to attract each other and form larger masses, the temperature of the nebula rises. A protostar forms. The protostar continues to increase in mass, contract, and heat up and when the temperature reaches about 10 million 0C, nuclear fusion begins, the protostar stops contracting. When this happens, the young star is a main sequence star. The amount of gas and dust available when a star forms, determines the mass of the star. In all Main sequence stars, nuclear fusion converts hydrogen into helium at a steady rate. When the hydrogen in the stars core is exhausted, the core collapses, causing the core to become unstable. The core starts to contract, and the temperature inside the star increases. This causes the stars outer layers to expand. As the star expands, it cools and starts to glow red. The star has become red giant (low- or medium mass stars such as the sun) and red supergiant (high- mass stars with those of more than about five times of the sun), nearing the end of their existence. The outer layers of the red giant will remain relatively cool; the core will reach temperatures high enough to spark fusion of helium into carbon. The last of the hydrogen gas in the stars outer shell is blown away, forming a cloud around the core known as planetary nebula. When all of a stars hydrogen and helium fuel has been used up, fusion stops, and the star begins to die. Gravity causes the stars matter to collapse inward. The star collapses to about the size of earth but extremely dense. It shines with-hot light and is called white dwarf. The star will slowly cool, producing no more energy; it will stop emitting light and become black dwarf. Since the oldest stars are only about 13 billion years old and it takes a white dwarf tens or even hundreds of billions of years to completely cools down , no black dwarf exist yet. The red supergiants, because of their greater mass, do not stop with carbon fusion. These stars produce successively heavier elements until the cores become iron. The star cannot use iron as fuel because iron fusion uses more energy than it produces. Fusion stops, and the stars core collapse violently. The outer part of the star explodes, producing a supernova. After supernova, either a neutron star or a black hole forms. If the core that remains after supernova has a mass of 1.4 to about 3 times that of the sun, it can become neutron star. Neutron star is only about 10 Km (about 6 miles) in diameter. If the core remaining after supernova has amass greater than three times of the sun, it will collapse to form an even strange object- a black hole. A black hole consists of matter so massive and compressed that nothing, not even light can escape from its gravity. Because

no light comes out of a black hole, it cannot be seen directly. However; black hole have a powerful gravitational influence on objects around them, so they may be detected indirectly. The more massive the star, the faster the star uses up its hydrogen the shorter their life span. Constellations

Picture of famous constellation

Ancient people often imagined the pattern of stars formed shapes of people, animals, or familiar objects. They grouped the stars together in patterns called constellation. The pattern often outlined characters from Greek mythology. Astronomers now divide the sky into 88 regions, or constellations and they are named from Greek or Roman mythology. Astronomers use constellations as landmarks to locate other stars and other objects in the sky. Galaxies A Galaxy is a large group of stars, gas and dust that is held together by gravity. Many galaxies contain billions and even trillions of stars, but because they are so far away, galaxies usually look like small smudges in the sky, even through a telescope. There are billions of galaxies scattered through out the universe. Galaxies are classified according to their shape into three main types. Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped and have arms that rotate around a dense center. The arms resemble pinwheels of light and seem to be places where most stars form. Our very own Milky Way galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy, its center is stretch-out that looks like a bar (figure ). Our solar system is located at the edge of one of the spiral arms. Almost every star you can see in the night sky is also part of the Milky Way galaxy. Because we are inside the galaxy , we cannot see all at once. Elliptical galaxies have a spherical or egg-shaped. Elliptical galaxies are generally older than spiral galaxy. They contain mostly older stars, have no spiral arms , and contain relatively little gas and dust. Both the largest and the smallest galaxies astronomers have observed are elliptical galaxies. Irregular galaxies do not have a well defined shape. Many of these galaxies are full of young stars, gas, and dust. The Small Magellanic Cloud (figure ) is an irregular galaxy close to the milky Way. Galaxies are not spread out evenly through the universe. They are grouped together in clusters and held together by gravity.

Pictures of the different types of galaxy

Unit 2 Variety and Classification of Matter Chapter 1 Matter What is Matter? Everything around you that occupies space is Matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. The amount of matter that an object contains is its mass. The Mass of an object does not change. The volume of an object is how much space the object takes up. One way to see the space that something takes up would be to place the object in a graduated cylinder filled with water. The process is called displacement method. States of Matter: Solid have a definite mass, volume and shape. The molecules are organized but the atoms cannot move around each other freely because it is closely packed. Liquids have definite mass and volume but no definite shape. The molecules have some organization and the atoms can move around each other freely. Liquids flows and assume the shape of its container. Gases have no definite mass, volume and shape. The molecules are very unorganized and move around freely. Gases fill their container and assume their shape. Liquids and gases are free-flowing materials. Plasma is the form of matter that exist when the atoms are in exited state. It is actually ionized gas, meaning, gas where the particles are electrically charge. It differs from ordinary gas in two aspects: It is a good conductor of electricity and it is affected by a magnetic field. Stars exist in the plasma state because of nuclear fusion. Some examples of plasma found on Earth are: Lightning, auroras, and neon. Bose-Einstein Condensate is a group of gaseous atoms liquefied at an extremely cold temperature of a little above absolute zero.

Properties of Matter Physical Properties Matter can be described by its physical and chemical properties. Physical Properties are characteristics by which we describe matter which can be determined without changing its identity. Some physical properties of matter are color, solubility, mass, odor, hardness, density, boiling point, melting point, conductivity, ductility, brittleness and miscibility. Physical properties of matter may further be classified as Intensive and Extensive properties. Intensive properties (or intrinsic) does not defend on the amount of matter present such as color, luster. Malleability, ductility, conductivity, hardness, melting/freezing point and density. Extensive properties

(or extrinsic) depend on the amount matter present. Examples of extensive properties of matter are mass, weight, volume, length. Chemical Properties These are the properties that describe how substance may change to form another substance. For example: Burning of wood. The wood lost its identity after burning completely. The property shown by the wood upon burning is a chemical property. Another example is ability of iron to rust. Concept map

1.3 Changes in Matter In Physical Change the identity of the matter itself is not altered. For example change in size, shape, state and dilutions ( diluting a solution is a physical change, even if the color becomes more faint). Chemists use specific terms for certain changes in matter: Initial State Solid Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Gas Final State Liquid Gas Gas Liquid Solid Solid Change Melting Evaporation Sublimation Condensation Freezing Deposition

In Chemical Change it is a change in matter that do alter the identity of a substance. For example: Iron rusting, wood burning, souring of milk the sugar ( lactose ) in the milk is converted into lactic acid by chemical change, and the composition and the properties of the acid differ from those of sugar. The following are the indicators that chemical change took place: 1. Change in color, odor and taste. 2. Formation of an insoluble solid ( precipitate ). 3. Formation of gas ( bubbles or smoke ). Activity no.

Physical vs. Chemical Change Classify the following as examples of a physical change or a chemical change. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Butter melts. Milk Sours. Water heated and changed to steam. Iron Rust. Acid on limestone produces carbon dioxide gas. Ice melts. Ripening of fruits. Decomposition of organic matter Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce a salt, water and heat 10. Chopping of wood. _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________

Classification of Matter According to Its Composition

Metalloids Based on its composition, matter is classified as either a substance or a mixture. A substance is the simplest and purest form of matter. It is a solid, liquid or gas with a constant composition. This means that the substance is the same no matter where it is found. Na, H2O, CO2, and O2 are all substances, because their composition will be the same no matter where you find them. All elements and all compounds are defined as substances. An element is a substance that are made up of only one type of atom, the basic building blocks of matter that cannot be easily created or destroyed. At this time, there are 113 known elements, most of which are metals. The symbols shown on the periodic table represent the known elements most elements are symbolized by a capital letter or by two letters with first letter capitalized and the second letter not capitalized. There are elements symbolized by three letters there are short-lived and they are the artificially prepared. However, there are some elements derived from the English and Latin names of the elements. Table 1.1 List the symbols of some elements. Element Chemical Symbol Latin Name

Hydrogen Carbon Magnesium Aluminum Sodium Potassium Silver Gold Unnilhexium Unnilseptium

H C Mg Al Na K Ag Au Unh Uns

Natrium Kalium Argentum Arum

Elements are classified into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Table 1.2 gives the properties of metals and non metals. Table Properties of Metals and Non metals Metals shiny and can be polished good conductors of heat and electricity malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets)and ductile (can be drawn into fine wires) elastic (have the property to return to return to their original position usually have high melting points have high tensile strengths have high densities Nonmetals Poor light reflector/dull (except diamond) Poor conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite) Brittle

Not elastic Have low melting points Have low tensile strengths Have low densities

Metalloids are those elements which have the properties of both metals and nonmetals. Elements that are adjacent to the ladderlike line of the periodic table are metalloids There are very few elements which posses these characteristics. Silicon and germanium are of the few examples.

Property 1. brittle 2. lustrous 3. poor conductor 4. ductile 5. gaseous at room temp. 6. conduct electricity 7. malleable 8. can have both positive & negative oxidation number 9. only forms positive ions 10. forms negative ions

Metal

Nonmetal

Activity no. Properties of metals and Nonmetals For the following physical and chemical properties, put a check in

the appropriate column if it applies to a metal or nonmetal.

A Compound is a substance that is made up of more than one type of atom joined together in a definite grouping. Each compound may be represented by a chemical formula, a symbol that shows the relative proportions of the number of atoms of the element that compose the substance. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), for example, is made up of one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen . Table 1.3 shows the chemical formulas of some compounds. Table Chemical Formulas of Compounds

Compound

Name

Chemical Formula

Compounds differ from mixtures in that they are chemically combined. Unlike elements, compounds can be decomposed, or broken down by simple chemical reactions. Table 1.4 shows the differences of element and compound.

Table Elements vs. Compounds Elements Composition is made up of one kind of atom. (Ex. H, N, Cl) All parts are the same throughout (homogenous). Compounds Composition is definite (homosgeneous). (Ex. H2O, CH4, SiO2) All parts reacts the same. Properties of the compound are distinct and different from the properties of the individual elements that are combined in its make up. A mixture is made up of two or more substances that are physically combined. The specific composition will vary from sample to sample. Some mixtures are so well blended that they are considered homogeneous, being made up of only one phase. Other mixtures, containing more than one phase, are called heterogeneous. Table 1.5 are the list of some known mixture. Table Mixture and Their Compounds Mixture Air Brass Baking powder Saline solution Vinegar Compounds Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, argon, krypton, neon and xenon Copper and zinc Sodium bicarbonate and some solid acid Salt and water Acetic acid and water

Homogenous and Heterogeneous Mixtures A homogeneous material is material that contains only one phase, a phase is any region of a material that has its own set of properties. Elements like oxygen, compounds like water, and solutions like salt water, are all considered homogeneous because they are uniform. Each region of a sample is identical to all other regions of the same sample. A Solution is a special type of homogeneous material, because unlike compounds, the parts of a solution are physically, not chemically, combined. When you mix a glass of salt water, the salt does not chemically react with the water. The two parts just mix so well that the resultant solution is said to be uniform. Ice tea, coffee, metal alloys, and the air we breathe are some examples of solutions. Solutions are made up of two parts: The solute, which gets dissolved, and the solvent, which does the dissolving. In the case of salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent. Heterogeneous mixtures - Heterogeneous mixtures are made up of more than one phase and they can be separated physically. The aforementioned chocolate chip cookie, a tossed salad, sand, and a bowl of raisin bran cereal are all examples of obvious heterogeneous mixtures. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which some particles remain suspended as can seen by the naked eye. Mud in water and starch in water are the some examples of suspension. A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture composed of tiny particles suspended in another material. Particles this small do not settle out and pass right through filter paper. Milk is an example of a colloid. The particles can be solid, tiny droplets of liquid, or tiny bubbles of gas; Colloids often appear to be homogeneous in bulk, but when are examined under a microscope are observed to be heterogeneous. Chemists must treat colloids as heterogeneous and process colloids to homogeneous before analysis the suspending medium can be a solid, liquid, or gas

Table 1.6 Comparison on the Three Types of Mixtures Mixture Visibility of dispersed particles Dispersed particles cannot be seen Dispersed particles can be seen by the Appearance Effect of beam of light Light can pass through Light cannot pass through

Solution Suspension

Clear or transparent cloudy

Colloid

naked eye Dispersed particles can be seen only with a powerful microscope

Slightly opaque

Scatters light (The scattering of light by particles in a mixture is called the Tyndall effect).

Activity no. Physical vs. Chemical Properties Properties of matter 1. density 2. supports combustion 3. hardness 4. reacts with water to form a gas 5. reacts with base to form water 6. blue color 7. volume 8. melting point 9. can neutralize a base 10. ductility Physical Property Chemical Property

Activity no. Substances vs. Mixtures Classify the following as to whether it is a substance or a mixture by writing S or M in the space provided. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. fluorine water soil milk iron _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ 6. chlorine 7. syrup 8. ice cream 9. cola 10. carbon monoxide _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

Activity no. Homogenous vs. Heterogeneous Matter Classify the following substances and mixtures as either homogenous or heterogeneous. Place a check ( ) in the correct column.

Substances & Mixtures 1. salad dressing 2. iron 3. city air 4. sugar water 5. pure air 6. paint 7. sugar 8. spaghetti sauce 9. soil 10. aluminum foil

Homogeneous

Heterogeneous

Activity no. Solutions, Colloids and Suspensions Identify the following mixture as a solution, colloid or suspension. Give an example each.

Activity no. Classification of Matter In the spaces provided, classify each of the following substances as; an element, a compound, a solution, or a heterogeneous mixture. 1. mongo bread ________________ 2. water ________________ 3. gold ______________ 4. Iced Tea(with powder well mixed) ________________ 6. softdrinks _______________ 7. alcohol _______________ 8. silver _______________ 9. mercury _______________

5. buko pie _______________

10. paint _______________

Science Connect: The element osmium and iridium are the two densest substance on Erath. The density of osmium is 22.57 g/cm3. Iridium has a density of 22.42 g/cm3. A piece of the size of a basketball has a mass of approximately 4700 g. Science @ net:

Unit 3 Force, Energy and Motion Force Nature and conceptual meaning of force If you look around, youll see all kinds of moving things- from MRT and buses to flying kites on the sky. But what makes some things move while other things stand still? A force is needed to make an object move. A force is also needed to make a moving object slow down, change direction, or stop moving. If you drop a stone, it falls to the ground. Gravity, the force that pulls objects toward the center of the Earth, is acting on the stone. A force can be a push or a pull. To make a cart move, you can pull it or you can push it behind. The unit used to measure force is called Newton (Kgm/s2) Contact and no-contact forces Some forces act between objects that are touching one another and their forces can act on objects over long distances.

Effects of forces in matter Forces can cause objects to move, change in speed, or change in direction. An object can be acted upon by more than one force at a time. The forces can act together or against each other. 3.1.5 Work and its operational definition

3.1.6 Work done in different situations

Simple machines and their uses Simple machines are the basic components of which all other machines are made. Most simple machines work by helping people move objects using less force thus they are useful because they let us do more work than we could with just muscle power. All simple machines can be grouped into two main families: those related to the inclined plane and those related to lever.

Simple Machines Inclined Plane Wedge Concept map Types of simple machines: Simple Machine Inclined plane Description Flat surface with one end higher than the other. Inclined planes do not move An inclined plan wedge can have either one or two sloping sides. Is an inclined Examples ramp, plank, stair, winding road Mechanical Advantages Used for transporting loads to a higher or lower level. Increase and change the direction of the force. Used to cut, split, or pierce things. Used to hold Formulas M.A. = load / effort screw Lever wheel and axlepulley

Wedge

knife, scissors, chisel, needles nails.

M.A. = length / thickness of base

Screw

jar with

M.A. =

Wheel and Axle

plane wrapped around a cylinder. When you turn a screw, the direction of your force is changed and increased. The closer the threads are, the less force you need to apply. Consists of a large wheel fixed to a smaller wheel or shaft called the axle. Both rotate together around the same point. A wheel and axle is actually a kind of lever that rotates in a circle around a center fulcrum (axle). Is a simple machine made of rope that fits into a grooved wheel.

mouth cap, vase, metal screws, food grinder

wood or metal pieces together. Fasten things together, includes lids that screw onto jars.

circumference of a circle / pitch of screw

Steering wheel, doorknob, pencil sharpener

A wheel and M.A. = radius axle trades of the wheel / distance for radius of axle force. As the wheel and axle turns together, a point on the wheel moves farther than a point on the axle. In return, the output force exerted by the axle is > the input force.

Pulley

Fixed and movable pulley, compound pulley

Reduced an output force in size, direction, or both

Single pulley M.A. = load / effort compound pulley M.A. =

4 x load / effort Lever Made up of a rigid bar that turns about a fixed point. The fixed point is called fulcrum Used to overcome a load which is greater than the effort The closer the M.A. = resistance is load / effort to the fulcrum, the less effort is needed to move the resistance.

Picture of simple machine- inside the table Lever is a simple machine that is made up of a rigid bar that turns about a fixed point. The point at which the bar of a lever pivots, or turns, is called fulcrum. The force you apply to a lever is called the effort (input force). The distance from the fulcrum to the effort is called resistance (load/output force), is the force exerted by the object you are trying to move. The distance from the fulcrum to the resistance is the resistance arm length. The closer the resistance is to the fulcrum, the less effort is needed to move the resistance. Levers are grouped into three classes based on the positions of the fulcrum, effort, and resistance. Three Classes of Levers Lever First-Class Lever Examples crowbars, seesaws, scissors, pliers Action Multiplies force if the effort is farther away from the fulcrum than the load. Multiplies distance if the effort is closer to the fulcrum than the resistance. Always multiplies force. Does not change the direction of the force.

The fulcrum is located between the effort and resistance. Second-Class Lever

can openers, nutcrackers, wheel barrows

The resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. Third-Class Lever

brooms, baseball bats, fishing rods, shovel,

Always multiplies distance and reduces force. Does

tweezers The effort is between the fulcrum and the resistance.

not change the direction of the force.

Picture of types of lever- inside the table 3.1.8 Work done using simple machine

Energy Definition of Energy Energy makes change; it does things for us. It moves jeepneys along the road and boats over the water. It bakes a pie in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite songs on the radio and lights our homes. Energy makes our bodies grow and allows our minds to think. Our bodies use a great deal of energy everyday just to stay alive. Without it, living organisms could not survive. Scientists define energy as the ability to do work and it is measured in Joules (J). Types and Forms of energy Types of energy Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position. If you stretch a rubber band, you will give it potential energy. As the rubber band is released, potential energy is changed to motion. The energy stored in any type of stretched or compressed elastic materials is called elastic potential energy . A Mango will fall if the stems break the branch. The energy that could potentially does work on the mango results from its position above the ground. This type of stored energy is called gravitational potential energy (GPE) stored in any type. Gravitational potential energy depends on both mass and height. If two mangos of different mass are of the same height the heavier mango has more GPE than the lighter one. But the Mango at the top of the tree has more GPE with respect to the earth than a similar mango on a lower branch. Gravitational Potential Energy Equation PE = mgh Where: m = mass

g = free-fall acceleration (9.8 m/s2) h = height Sample problems: 1. What is the potential energy of 5 Kg rock at the top of a cliff 95 meters high? Given: mass = 5 Kg g = 9.8 m/ s2 h = 95 m Unknown: PE Formula: PE = mgh Substitute the given to the formula PE = mgh = 5 kilograms x 9.8 m/s2 x 95 meters = 47.5 Joules

2.

A frog with amass of 0.23 kg hops up in the air. At the highest point in the hop, the frog has a gravitational potential energy of 0.744 J. How high can it hop? mgh = PE mgh = PE mg mg

h = PE mg *The PE equation can be rearranged to isolate height on the left; divide both sides by mg, and cancel. Practice: 1. A puppy sits on the top of a table that is 2.0 m high. The puppy has a gravitational potential energy of 88.9 J. What is the mass of the puppy? 2. A Kinetic energy is energy of motion. A kite flying through the air has kinetic energy. When you are jogging your body is exhibiting kinetic energy. Potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Before the yoyo begins its fall it has stored energy due to its position. At the top it has its maximum potential energy. As it starts to fall the potential energy begins to be changed into kinetic energy. At the bottom its potential energy has been converted into kinetic energy so that it now has its maximum kinetic energy. A waterfall has both potential and kinetic energy. The water at the top of Maria Christina Falls has stored potential energy. When the water begins to fall, its potential energy is changed into kinetic energy. Kinetic Energy depends on mass and speed. The KE of a moving object depends on the square of objects speed. Kinetic Energy Equation KE = 1/2mv2.

Where: m = mass v = velocity Sample problems: 1. Calculate the kinetic 1. A ball with a mass of 654 Kg has a kinetic energy of 73.4 KJ. What is the cars speed?

Activity Classify the following as examples of potential energy or kinetic energy, Write PE for potential energy and KE for kinetic energy. _____1. a bird sitting in a tree (PE) _____2. a bird flying through the air (KE) _____3. a book falling off a disk (KE) _____4. roller coaster (KE) _____5. a chicken on a barn roof (PE) Forms of energy Energy is in everything. We use energy to do everything we do, from playing basketball to cooking our favorite food to sending astronauts into space -- energy is there, making sure we have the power to do it all and its comes in different forms. There are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories: kinetic and potential. Kinetic Electrical Energy is the movement of electrical charges. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Potential Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds these particles together. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical

Applying a force can make some of the electrons move. Electrical charges moving through a wire is called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.

energy.

Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, xrays, gamma rays and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy

Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.

Thermal Energy, is the internal energy in substancesthe vibration and movement of the atoms and molecules within substances. Although technically incorrect, the word heat is often used to mean thermal energy. In strict scientific terms, there is a distinct difference between heat and thermal energy. Thermal energy pertains to the kinetic energy of the molecules within an object. Heat is the transfer of energy between two objects. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atomthe energy that holds the nucleus together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart. Fission is the process by which nucleus splits into two or more smaller fragments, releasing neutrons and energy. Ex. Splitting of the nuclei uranium atoms in nuclear plants. Fusion is the process in which light nuclei combine at extremely high temperatures forming heavier nuclei and releasing energy. Ex. The suns energy comes from nuclear fusion.

Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibratethe energy is transferred through the substance in a wave.

Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such as water in a reservoir behind a dam, is an example of gravitational potential energy.

Transformation of energy People have learned how to change energy from one form to another so that we can do work more easily and live more comfortably. A battery has chemical potential energy along with electrical potential energy. When you turn on a device that is battery-operated, such as a flashlight or a toy, the electrical potential energy stored in the battery is converted into other forms of energy such as sound, mechanical motion, thermal energy, and light. Energy transfer

Renewable and renewable Sources of Energy All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use every day. These sources are divided into two groups: renewable (an energy source that can be replenished in a short period of time) and nonrenewable (an energy source that we are using up and cannot recreate in a short period of time). Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy sources including electricity and hydrogen. Renewable energy Solar energy - which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat. Wind energy Geothermal energy- energy from inside the earth, Biomass - from plants, Hydropower Ocean energy - from water are also renewable energy sources. Solar energy

They are called renewable energy sources because they are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

Nonrenewable Energy Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) - They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Nuclear energy- energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and ultimately electricity. These energy sources are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, for example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. We cant make more petroleum in a short time. Electricity and hydrogen are different from the other energy sources because they are secondary sources of energy. Secondary sources of energyenergy carriers are used to store, move, and deliver energy in easily usable form.

Law of Conservation of Energy The law of conservation of energy requires that at any given time, the total energy should be the same, and it is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesnt disappear. We change it from one form of energy into another. A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into mechanical energy. Solar cells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in the universe stays the same.

Understanding Energy Problems Solutions to energy problems

3.3 Motion 3.3.1 Definition of Motion Motion is always observed and measured relative to a frame of reference. As there is no absolute reference frame, absolute motion cannot be determined. A body which is motionless relative to a given reference frames. Thus, everything in the universe is moving. Relative motion is a change in location relative to reference point, as measured by a particular observer in a particular frame of reference. An object is in relative motion when its distance from another is changing. However, whether the object appears to be moving or not depends on the point of view. For example, a woman riding in a bus is not moving in relation to the seat she is sitting on, but she is moving in relation to the buildings the bus passes. Kinetic motion is moving motion. Potential motion is when motion is standing still.

3.3.2 Scalar and Vector Quantity A scalar quantity is defined as a quantity that has magnitude only. Common examples of scalar quantities are time, speed, temperature, volume, density, mass, and energy. A vector quantity is defined as a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. An example of a vector quantity is force. If we are to fully describe a force on an object we need to specify not only how much force is applied but also in which direction. Another examples are velocity (eg. 5 m/s north), and displacement (eg. 75 cm at 150).

3.3.3

Distance and displacement

Distance is a scalar measure of the interval between two locations measured along the actual path connecting them. Displacement is a vector measure of the interval between two locations measured along the shortest path connecting them.

Drawing

3.3.4 3.3.5

Speed, velocity and acceleration Laws of Motion

Newtons laws of motion help us predict how forces will affect objects on Earth and in fact, anywhere in the universe. First Law Law of Inertia An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will continue to move at the same speed in a straight line unless a external force act on it. A table will stay in place until it is pushed. A ball at rest on the ground will stay at rest until it is kicked. It is easy to see how objects that are at rest because of balance forces will stay at rest until another force is added. However it is difficult to find examples of objects in motion that continue to move at the same speed in a straight line forever. This is because the forces of gravity and friction act on these moving objects, changing their direction. Newtons first law of motion is sometimes called the law of inertia. Inertia is the tendency of a moving object to stay in motion or a resting object to stay still. Second Law- Law of Acceleration An object acted on by a net will accelerate in the direction of the force. The objects acceleration Newtons second law of motion shows how force, mass, and acceleration are related. a=f m where: a - acceleration f - force m - mass If an objects mass stays the same, you can increase the objects acceleration by applying more force. When you a throw a stone. You apply force to the stone when you throw it. The harder you throw, the more the stone will accelerates. According to Newtons second law, if you double the force on the stone, the acceleration doubles as well. If the same force is applied to two different objects, the one with a smaller mass will accelerate more than the one with a larger mass. Acceleration is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass (a f and 1 mass).

Motion is the process of changing from one position, or place, to another. How did we know when something is moving?

3.3.6

Momentum

Suppose a stone rolls toward you at a velocity of 1m/s. You can stop it easily with your hand. Now suppose a big rock coming from a cliff is moving toward you at the same velocity. You know that you would not be able to stop it with your hand. It takes more force to stop the big rock because it has more momentum. The momentum of an object depends on both on its velocity and its mass. Momentum is a property that a moving object has because of its mass and velocity. For an object moving in a straight line, momentum is calculated by using this formula: p=mxv Where: p = momentum m = mass v = velocity The unit for momentum is kg m / s and is always described with a direction because velocity has a direction. Sample problems: 1. Calculate the momentum of a 5.5 kg bowling ball moving at 9.5 m/s down the alley. Given: m = 5.5 kg v = 9.5 m/s down the alley unknown: p =? Formula: p=mxv Substitute the given to the formula: p = mv = 5.5 kg x 9.5 m/s p = 52.25 Kgm/s down the alley Activity: Momentum Calculate the momentum of the following objects: 1. a 65 kg cyclist moving forward at 20 m/s 2. a 0.7 kitten running to the right at 6.5 m/s 3. A runner, who has a mass of 52 kg-m/s along the trail. What is the runners velocity. 5. Law of conservation of momentum: States that the total amount of momentum in a group of interacting objects does not change unless outside forces act on the objects. The bowling balls momentum is transferred to the pins. Together, the bowling ball and the pins are a kind of system. The total amount of momentum in the system stays the same.

Unit 4 Environment Chapter 1 Changes on Earth Lithosphere: Its Parts and Resources Plate tectonics, theories on continental drift, and sea floor spreading Plate tectonics (from Greek , tektn "builder" or "mason") describes the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. Plate Tectonics is a theory developed in the late 1960s, to explain how the outer layers of the Earth move and deform. The theory has caused a revolution in the way we think about the Earth. Since the development of the theory, geologists have had to reexamine almost every aspect of Geology. Plate tectonics has proven to be so useful that it can predict geologic events and explain almost all aspects of what we see on the Earth. The theory encompasses the older concepts of continental drift, developed during the first half of the 20th century, and seafloor spreading, understood during the 1960s.

Continental Drift Theory In the early twentieth century, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener noticed that most of the continents seem to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. By studying the world maps, Wegener found that several of the other continents coastline also seemed to fit together. Wegener pieced together parts of a map and joined all the continents together, forming a supercontinent. He proposed that the continents were once compressed into a single continent which he called Pangae (meaning all lands) and over time they have drifted apart into their current distribution. Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to one another.

Forces that shape the earths crust Earths phenomena Earths phenomena are any seasons, weather, natural hazards and other naturally occurring phenomena. Examples of such events are: sunrise, sunsets, eclipses, aurora borealis, storms, tsunami, earthquake, winter, spring, summer, fall etc. Raw materials from land, air and water Processes on how materials become finished products Hydrosphere Water in different forms Ocean basin

River formation and its effects on the environment Philippine territorial waters Salt water and fresh water Water currents Water resources Water pollution Conservation of water resources Atmosphere Layers of the atmosphere Composition of the atmosphere Weather and climate Elements of weather and climate Weather prediction Weather disturbances Air pollution

Chapter 2 Living Things and their Environment Highly organized structure of living organisms Characteristics of living organisms What is life? What does it mean do be alive? How something is made living? These are all pertinent questions when discussing the origin of life. Scientists have identified seven basic characteristics of life. There are some very general rules to follow when trying to decide if something is living, dead, or non-living. Listed here are the six characteristics used by scientists. If something follows one or just a few of the rules listed above, it does not necessarily mean that it is living. To be considered alive, an object must exhibit all of the characteristics of living things.

1. Living things are made of cells. All living things are composed of one or more cells. Different types of cells have different "jobs" within the organism. 2. Living things obtain and use energy. All organisms use energy. The sum of the chemical energy they use is called metabolism. This energy is used to carry out everything they do. Autotrophs (plants) use energy from the sun for photosynthesis, to make their own food (glucose). Heterotrophs (animals and humans) must ingest food for this purpose.

3. Living things grow and develop. Growth requires an organism to take in material from the environment and organize the material into its own structures. To accomplish growth, an organism expends some of the energy it acquires during metabolism. An organism has a pattern for accomplishing the building of growth structures. Almost all living things start their lives as smaller infant like creatures. Over a period of time, they grow and develop into adults. Some life forms, such as frogs, start their life in a completely different form, and then change dramatically as they grow. A frog begins its life as a tad pole, then turns into an adult frog. A butterfly starts its life as a caterpillar, before maturing into a full grown beautiful butterfly. 4. Living things reproduce. All living things produce young. Humans make babies, cats produce kittens and pigeons lay eggs. Plants also reproduce. Many make seeds which can germinate and grow into new plants. 5. Living things respond to their environment. One of the most important characteristics of living things, is that they respond to the environment around them. This one single characteristic makes them very different from non-living things, which do not respond to the environment, but instead just let what ever happens to them happen. 6. Living things adapt to their environment. Living organisms have characteristics that give them a survival/reproductive advantage in an environment; that is, they have adaptations to the environment. Living organisms show variability in these adaptations, allowing the species to continue in a fluctuating or changing environment. 2.1.2 Cell as fundamental unit of structure of living organisms Cell theory is the basis for the way that biologists study living things. Cell Theory is the most basic condition for determining if something is living. Modern Cell theory It states: 1. All living things are made up of cells. 2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. 3. Living cells come only from other living cells. Modern Cell Theory 4. The cell contains hereditary information which is passed on from cell to cell during cell division. 5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.

Cells are the basic units of living material. It is the smallest unit that can perform life functions. The bodies of all living things are formed from cells, and without cells there would be no life. All cells fall into one of the two

major classifications, prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are very simple cells, probably first to inhabit the earth. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane bound nucleus. Bacteria are example of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes cells are more advanced cells. These cells are found in plants, animals, and protists (small unicellular "animalcules"). Basic parts of a typical plant cell and animal cell and their functions http://waynesword.palomar.edu/lmexer1a.htm

The eukaryotic cell is composed of 3 main parts: Cell membrane - a structural layer that gives the cell shape, while allowing molecules of various types to pass into and out of the cell. Cytoplasm main metabolic site of the cell wherein organelles are located Nucleus - the "control center" of the cell, contains the cell's DNA (chromosomes) Organelles that found in Plant and Animal Cell

Structure

Organelles Mitochondria

Function These organelles are the Energy center or "powerhouse" of the cell and contain the molecular machinery for the conversion of energy. It turns food into useable energy (ATP) provides the energy a cell needs. known as the "packagers" of the cell. Important for packaging macromolecules for transport around the cell. A membrane-bound organelle containing hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes. Lysosomes originate as membrane-bound vesicles (called Golgi vesicles) that bud from the Golgi apparatus. They are primarily involved with intracellular digestion. Lysosomes fuse with vesicles (small vacuoles) formed by endocytosis. The contents of these vesicles are digested by lysosomal enzymes. Autodigestion by lysosomes also occurs during embryonic development. The fingers of a human embryo are webbed initially, but are separated from each other by lysosomal enzymes. Cells in the tail of a tadpole are digested by lysosomal enzymes during the gradual transition into a frog. A membrane-bound organelle that contains specific enzymes imported from the cytoplasm (cytosol). For example, certain peroxisomes contain the enzyme catalase which rapidly breaks down toxic hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. This reaction can be easily demonstrated by pouring some hydrogen peroxide on raw meat or an open wound. small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis. ER is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm ER is prominent in cells that are making proteins for export such as digestive enzymes, hormones, structural proteins or antibodies. The main function of rough ER is the separation of proteins destined for export from the cell or for intracellular use. Allows the cell a certain ability to perform a variety of specialized functions. It is necessary for steroid synthesis, metabolism and detoxification of substances in the liver to take place in the smooth ER.

Golgi Bodies

Lysosome

Peroxisome

Ribosome

Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough ER

Smooth ER

This table summarizes the distinctions between plant and animal cells

Structure

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

Cell Wall

Yes

No

Centrioles

No

Yes

Cilia or Flagella

Some present

Yes, complex

Lysosomes

No

Common

Chloroplasts

yes

No

vacuole

Large central vacuole

one or more small vacuoles

Specialized Structure of Plant and Animal Cells 1. Cytoskeleton Cells contain elaborate arrays of protein fibers that serve such functions as establishing cell shape, providing mechanical strength, locomotion, chromosome separation in mitosis and meiosis intracellular transport of organelles. The cytoskeleton is made up of three kinds of protein filaments: Actin filaments (also called Microfilaments) Microfilaments are fine, thread-like protein fibers, 3-6 nm in diameter. They are composed predominantly of a contractile protein called actin, which is the most abundant cellular protein, Microfilaments' association with the protein myosin is responsible for muscle contraction. Microfilaments can also carry out cellular movements including gliding, contraction, and cytokinesis. Microtubules Microtubules are cylindrical tubes, 20-25 nm in diameter. They are composed of subunits of the protein tubulin--these subunits are termed alpha and beta. Microtubules act as a scaffold to determine cell shape, and provide a set of "tracks" for cell organelles and vesicles to move on. Microtubules also form the spindle fibers for separating chromosomes during mitosis. When arranged in geometric patterns inside flagella and cilia, they are used for locomotion. Intermediate filaments Intermediate filaments are about 10 nm diameter and provide tensile strength for the cell Examples of the cytoskeleton in epithelial cells In the epithelial (skin) cells of the intestine, all three types of fibers are present. Microfilaments project into the villi, giving shape to the cell surface. Microtubules grow out of the centrosome to the cell periphery. Intermediate filaments connect adjacent cells through desmosomes 2. Centrioles Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't essential to the process.

3. Cilia and Flagella Swimming is the major form of movement exhibited by sperm and by many protozoans. Some cells are propelled at velocities approaching 1 mm/s by the beating of cilia and flagella, flexible membrane extensions of the cell. Cilia and flagella range in length from a few microns to more than 2 mm in the case of some insect sperm flagella. For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past an immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells. Interactions between Living and Non-living things The Ecological system Biosphere and its Biomes Ecology is the study of relationships among living things and their environment. All living things or organisms are found in an area of the Earth call biosphere. Different areas of the biosphere have different environmental conditions. These broad areas are called Biomes. Many biomes are terrestrial (exist on land). There are also Aquatic biomes (exist in waters), aquatic biomes may be classified into salt water biomes and fresh water biomes. Anyone of these divided into smaller units called ecosystem. Table 1-1 Major Biomes of the world- picture The Community in an Ecosystem An ecosystem consists of groups of interrelated organism and their physical environment. Ecosystem can be large or small. The entire planet is one big ecosystem containing all the living and non living things on earth- the land and water, the organisms, and the atmosphere. The environment of an organism includes physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic (non living) factors such as sunlight, temperature soil, water and biotic (living) factors, which includes other organisms that share its habitat. Figure flow chart Ecosystem Community Population Organism

Figure 1-1 Ecosystems are made up of communities that contain different populations of organisms

Biotic relationships and relationships of living and non-living things Food chain and food web A food chain is made up of series of organisms each one using the next one in the chain as part of its food supply. Food chains interact when members of different chains feed on one another together they form a food web. Food chains show the transfer of energy from the sun to producers (such as plants) and on to consumers (such as people) and finally to decomposers. A food web describes interrelated food chains within an ecosystem. Species within a food web may interact with each other through predation, commensalisms, mutualism, and parasitism. Energy is transferred through the community in form of food. At each stage of the food chain energy is lost. The primary consumer only receives 10 % of the producer. The secondary producer gets 10 % of the primary consumers energy (only 1 % of the original energy). The longer the food chain the lesser the energy will get by the last consumer and vice versa. That is why producers are such an important part of the community. Without them there would be no energy.

Figure: Food Chain

Figure: Food web Activity: More Food Chains In grassland and woodland, there are a large number of food chains. Study the picture below. Drawing

Find at least three food chains in the scene above. List the food chains below.

1. ______________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________ Activity: Food Webs Can you imagine yourself eating only one kind of food everyday? Eating would be boring! Try to have fried rice and salted fish every meal, 365 days a year, for the rest of your life. Most animals, like humans, eat more than one kind of food. This means that most animals are members of more than one food chain. Form a food web by drawing arrows from each prey to its predator. Remember most prey have more than one predator. Use a different colored crayon for each food chain. Drawing

One of the food chain that you may have found in the food web is this one: Plant grasshopper frog snake Write two more food chains that you found in the food web. 1._______________________________________________________ 2._______________________________________________________ Flow of matter and energy in an ecosystem Energy is continually input into an ecosystem in the form of light energy, and some energy is lost with each transfer to a higher trophic level. Nutrients, on the other hand, are recycled within an ecosystem, and their supply normally limits biological activity. Energy is moved through an ecosystem via a food web, which is made up of interlocking food chains. Energy is first captured by photosynthesis (primary production). The amount of primary production determines the amount of energy available to higher trophic levels.

Interrelationships among organisms and between organisms and their environment.

To aid or benefit in their survival, many organisms have established relationships with organisms not within their species. A relationship that benefits an organism is called symbiosis. These relationships can generally be classified as one of three types. Symbiotic relationships exist where one or more organisms live in close contact or live with one another. Predator prey relationships or predation exist when one organisms consumes a second organism. Competitive relationships exist where organisms compete for an important resource such as food, shelter or possibly mates. Symbiotic relationships Mutualism - is a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit from the relationship. Example: The bee and the flower. Bees fly from flower to flower gathering nectar, which they make into food, benefiting the bees. When they land in a flower, the bees get some pollen on their hairy bodies, and when they land in the next flower, some of the pollen from the first one rubs off, pollinating the plant. This benefits the plants. In this symbiotic relationship, the bees get to eat, and the flowering plants get to reproduce. Commensalism - is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits while the other organism is unaffected by the relationship. Example: The shark and the remora (small group of pilotfish) The remora is a small scavenger fish that attaches to the underside of many sharks. The remora feeds on the leftover particles of food that the shark does not eat. The shark is not affected by the remora, and the remora gains food by tagging along with the sharks. Parasitism - is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is harmed. Example: Predator - prey or predation A predator is an organism that eats another organism. It describes a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey, the organism that is attacked. There are only those animals that kill to eat (predators) and those that are killed and eaten (prey). Example: Spider sits in its web and patiently
waits for an insect to get caught in its sticky trap. When this happens, the spider rushes out, kills or paralyzes the insect, wraps it in silk, and then sucks out its body liquids. Predation also assures the "survival of the fittest," nature's basic law. Young animals are also in danger since they are not as strong, fast, or wise as adult animals. Those with strong instincts for survival will learn how to avoid their predators.

Competitive relationships Intraspecific Competition is a particular form of competition in which members of the same species vie for the same resource in an ecosystem (e.g. food, nutrients, space). Example: Two plants of the same species growing close together will compete for light, water and nutrients in the soil. Getting less resources, they will perform more poorly than if they grew by themselves Interspecific Competition is a form of competition in which individuals of different species vie for the same resource in an ecosystem (e.g. food or living space). If a tree in a dense forest grows taller than surrounding

trees, it is able to absorb more of the incoming sunlight. However, less sunlight is then available for trees that are shaded by the taller tree, Insert picture for symbiotic relationship Effect of population size/density on food, space and relationship among organisms As the term implies, "population density" refers to the number of people in a defined jurisdiction, in relation to the size of the area that they occupy. Obviously, the population density is higher in urban areas than in rural communities. Population density is a useful measure; the proportion of people living in urban areas in relation to the area available to produce food for them might be a more meaningful statistic.

2.1 Maintenance/Restoration of the integrity/balance of an ecosystem 2.1.1 Importance of natural resources 2.1.2 Conservation of soil, forest, air and wildlife

Activity: Plant and Animal cells Process

1. Choose a partner or one will be chosen for you. 2. Follow the directions for each section carefully. 3. Remember to follow the helpful hints.

Parts of a Cell
1. Create a four column chart on your practice worksheet. 2. Label the columns: Parts of a Cell / Cell Functions / Animal / Plant 3. In the first column list the parts of a cell. Use the example below to help you. 4. In the second column, describe the function of each cell part by comparing it to something else. Create a simile for each. (____ is like a ____ because....) Example: A cell membrane is like a fence because it surrounds the cell and only allows certain materials to enter and leave the cell. 5. In the third and fourth columns, place a checkmark in the box if the cell part is present in animals or plants. If the cell part is present in both, check both boxes. Parts of a Cell Cell Membrane Cell Wall Chloroplasts Cytoplasm Cell Functions Animal Plant

Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Bodies Lysosomes Mitochondria Nucleus Ribosomes Vacuole Vesicles 6. Use the following Web site to research the parts of a cell: http://vilenski.org/science/safari Helpful Hint: Click to begin the safari, go to plants, explore the parts of a cell by clicking on each, return to the main menu, go to animals, compare the parts of a cell listed with the list for plants. 7. For additional research, use the following Web sites: http://www.cellsalive.com/ and http://www.biology4kids.com/files/cell_main.html. 8. When you complete your practice worksheet, transfer the information by word processing or to a spreadsheet. Add an appropriate graphic for the finishing touch. Be sure to credit your sources.