MTOO Boek Hoofdstuk 1: Engineering design A list of attributes that an engineer should possess: - Problem-solving skills - Effective communication

skills - Highly ethical and professional behavior - An open mind and positive attitude - Proficiency in math and science - Technical skills - Motivation to continue learning - Knowledge of business strategies and management practices - Computer literacy - Understanding of world affairs and cultures 1. Needs assessment: The need for a solution is first established. 2. Problem formulation: The real problem to be solved Is defined in the form of design goals that are to be achieved by any viable solution. 3. Abstraction and synthesis: develop abstract (general) concepts or approaches through which the problem could be solved, and then generate detailed alternative solutions or designs for the problem. 4. Analysis: compare and evaluate alternative designs. 5. Implementation: develop the final solution and distribute it to your intended clients/customers/user(s). There is no such thing as a perfect solution to an engineering problem because of the compromises that one usually must make in order to resolve conflicts among the design goals. This may result into Nth-generation design solutions to the problem that can continue endlessly. Engineer practices - Life-cycle design: engineers increasingly focus upon the entire life cycle of a design in order to ensure that the design will be successful - Design for manufacture and assembly: design engineers should work to ensure that any proposed solution can be properly manufactured. - Design for quality: the principles of quality assurance are applied to a design in order to ensure low failure rates coupled with high performance levels. - Faster design cycles: the need to produce engineering solutions quickly and effectively is being met though the use of computer technology and concurrent engineering. - Engineering without walls: engineering departments within different companies often work together collaboratively to achieve a common goal. - Design for export: increasingly, products are developed for the international marketplace.

Hoofdstuk 2 Needs Assessment The initial step of the engineering design process is to identify the specific need that is to be satisfied by a solution based upon technology. Some forms of need for a new product are: - Safety and quality of life (a type writer for the blind) - Improving an existing product or system (the DC Heart Defibrillator) - Commercial incentives - Personal experiences - Opportunities from scientific advances There are three basic types of problems to be solved by engineers (by Parnes, 1967): - Problems of prediction in which one seeks to calculate a result or predict a system s behavior by applying equations, physical laws, etc. - Problems of explanation in which one seeks the cause(s) for a phenomenon or observed behavior. - Problems of invention in which one seeks to develop a new and effective solution to a problem. A problem can be identified as one of these types or a combination of these problems. Success of a design is more likely if one focuses on others and not on oneself. When a design fails, the cause of a failure may lie at any or all of three different levels: - Concrete level: a specific physical source is identified as a contributory cause of the failure. - Process level: invalid assumptions, faulty reasoning, or the flawed execution of a procedure led to the failure. - Values/attitudes/perspective level: A flawed value system contributes to the failure. A design proposal provides the engineer with the opportunity to justify the expenditure of time, money, and effort for a problem-solving project, and to generate an initial plan for completing the project.. It should answer the following questions about the work to be performed: 1. Objective (Why?): The precise objective to be achieved by the proposed effort should be described in a clear and concise form. 2. Background (Who? Where?): the necessary contextual background of the problem should be provided so that the reviewers of the proposal will be able to understand who will be served by a solution to the problem together with the environment in which the design is expected to be used (where). 3. Methodology (How? When?): in this section of the proposal, the engineer should describe the approach that will be used to design and develop the desired solution. 4. Expected results (What?): next the expected results of the effort should be described. 5. Costs (How much will it cost?): the expected costs of the proposed effort should be given.

Hoofdstuk 3 Structuring the Search for the Problem Formulation of a problem statement is a most critical step in an engineering design project since it will determine the direction in which the effort proceeds; the misformulation of a problem may result in a final design that is of little value or that may even be hazardous. Problem statements should focus upon the function(s) to be achieved by the desired design solutions. A number of different techniques and strategies can be used to define the real problem to be solved; these include the statement-restatement technique, the source/cause approach, the revision method, and the present state-desired state (PS-DS) strategy via Duncker diagrams. The statement-restatement technique 1. Determine the real problem (in contrast to the stated problem). Fogler and Le Blanc (1995) recommend the use of various restatement triggers: - varying the emphasis placed on certain word and phrases - substituting explicit definitions of certain terms in the problem statement for these terms - changing positive terms to negatives and vice versa - replacing persuasive and/or implied words in the problem statement - expressing words in graphical or mathematical form and vice versa 2. Determine the actual constraints or boundaries (in contrast to the given or inferred boundaries) 3. Identify meaningful goals (in contrast to a set of given or inferred goals) 4. Identify relationships between inputs, outputs, and any unknowns. Determine the source and the cause: Why-Why diagrams Another heuristic simply states that one should consider the source of the problem statement. One technique for identifying the cause(s) of a problem is to create a Why-Why diagram, in which one states the problem or situation under consideration on the left and then generates branches to the right with each branch associated with a possible underlying source of the problem. Revision method Often the engineer is not confronted with a totally new problem, but instead must improve an existing product. the revision method can be used when one is searching for a fresh perspective on this task or as creativity technique for generating new ideas. The method simply assumes that the focus of the design effort occasionally should revert to the product or solution (rather than the specific function to be achieved by the solution) if one has exhausted all efforts in reformulating the problem or if one needs to stimulate creative thinking in order to generate new design concepts. Present state and Desired state via Duncker Diagrams Another strategy for properly formulating a problem is to specify the present state or problem state (PS) and the desired state (DS) or the solution state of the process or system under development. The engineer then modifies either the PS statement, the DS statement, or both until there is a satisfactory correlation between the two. Duncker diagrams are a graphical tool that can be used to develop a set of matching PS and DS statements. These diagrams focus on develop solutions at ing three different levels: general, functional, and specific. General solutions are of two types: (1) those that require some action be taken in order to achieve the desired state, and (2) those that transform the DS until it matches the PS, thereby eliminating the need to achieve to original DS but perhaps necessitating some change in the PS in order to make it acceptable. The null solution is when the PS is preferable to all alternative states. Functional solution are then generated without consideration given to feasibility; one simply considers any and all possibilities for solving the problem. These functional solutions are transformed (if possible) into specific solutions that are indeed feasible.

In Benchmarking a company compares its performance against competitors or other groups in order to identify areas for possible improvement. A more focused form of benchmarking is that of Best Practices in which one identifies the finest methods and performance techniques within an industry. These so-called best practices then provide a model which to guide and assess future performance by own group. Kepner-tregoe Situation Analysis Charles Kepner and Benjamin Tregoe (1981) have developed a four -step problem-solving method that can be very effective for engineering design. These steps are as follows: - Situation analysis (SA): the most urgent or critical aspects of a situations are identified first. SA allows us to view the problem form different perspectives and at varying levels of detail. It is useful in focusing our efforts to determine what we know, which tasks should be performed, and in what order these tasks should be completed. - Problem analysis (PS): the cause of the problem or sub problem must be determined (corresponding to a focus upon the past since we seek the preexisting cause of a currentsub problem). - Decision analysis (DS): the actins needed to correct the sub problem and/or eliminate its cause must be determined (a focus on developing a correction to the sub problem in the present time). - Potential problem analysis (PPA): the actions needed to prevent any reoccurrences of the sub problem and/or the development of new problems must be determined (corresponding to a focus on the future).

Hoofdstuk 4 Designing the Search strategy One must properly structure the search for a solution to a problem by formulating the desired characteristics or design goals, recognizing the constraints within which any solution must lie, and eliminating those paths that will not satisfy these goals and constraints. We begin with the need to eliminate impossible or unpromising paths between the problem state and the solution state. Next, we need to structure our problem-solving tasks so that they provide the most useful information as guidance in our subsequent decision-making. Finally, we should carefully evaluate the final solution state before deciding on the intermediate steps to follow along the path to a solution. Subdividing the problem into design goals. These are general design goals: Safety: A paramount goal of engineering is to produce truly safe products, systems and processes. A design solution should not threaten the safety of those who will produce, distribute, and/or operate it. Environmental protection: In engineering design, safety extends beyond our concern for those who will produce, distribute, or operate a product to the environment itself. Design solutions to technical problems should never harm our environment from their production through their operating lives to their final disposal. Public acceptance: to increase the likelihood of product acceptance, the engineer should try to identify any such customer expectations that may exist about a proposed design. Reliability: The design solution should perform each and every time it is used; at least, this is the ideal level of reliability sought by the engineer. Performance: An engineering design should perform well in the given environmental and operating conditions. Ease of operation (operating conditions): the design should be easy to understand and easy to operate. Durability: any product must be designed to resist wear and operate properly for a specified amount of time. Use of standard parts: Standard parts should be incorporated into a design whenever possible, since it is usually less costly to purchase these ready-made components than to fabricate the them from raw materials. Minimum cost: It is important to minimize cost where possible, for otherwise a proposed design may be deemed economically infeasible and never produced, unexpected costs may cause a design to become economically infeasible after production has begun, leading to its commercial failure, or costs may be reduced in arbitrary fashion, leading to design or manufacturing flaws. Minimum maintenance and ease of maintenance: maintenance can be expensive in terms of materials and labor. Satisfying multiple goals: a product may fail because inability to satisfy several general engineering design goals simultaneously. There are both general and specific engineering design goals; general goals are sought in most engineering design solutions, whereas specific goals are used to help define the characteristics and desired function of a particular design. Design goals are qualitative n nature, whereas design specifications (specs) are quantitative. The next task is to identify the constraints or specifications associated with each design goals. These specs represent the quantitative boundaries within which our search for a solution must be conducted. Specs may be of several different types: Physical (weight limits) Functional or operational (operating times) Environmental (moisture limits) Economic (production costs) Legal (pollution control codes) Human factors/ergonomics (intelligence)

Hoofdstuk 6 abstraction and modeling In abstraction, one tries to generate as many different solution categories as possible. During the next phase of the design process (synthesis), one will then develop detailed design concepts in each of these categories. A model is a purposeful representation of a process, object or system. Models help us to organize our thoughts, data, and knowledge. All models are approximations due to simplifying assumptions. An engineer must be cognizant of all assumptions that were made in developing the model. The engineer must determine the resolution (the minimum level of detail) needed in the model for it to properly describe the system under consideration. A model should never include more than the essential details needed to properly describe a process or system (Occam s razor). Models can be abstract or concrete. Furthermore, they may be iconic, analogical, or symbolic. System models can be deterministic or stochastic, whereas process models can be prescriptive or descriptive. Freehand pictorial, orthographic, and other sketches can be used to describe and develop design concepts. A wide variety of charts can be used to compare and analyze different kinds of data.

Hoofdstuk 7 synthesis Synthesis is the formation of a whole from a set of building blocks or constituent parts. In engineering design, entities are combined in appropriate ways to create a product or system that solves a problem. Such problem-solving performed in new and different ways clearly requires creative thought. One must be prepared to transform accidents into design solutions. Many techniques and strategies for simulating creativity and overcoming blocks to imagination have been developed. These techniques include brainstorming, bionics, check listing, synectics, the method of analogies, explaining the difficulty, inversion, adaption, and idea diagrams. Engineering design requires that we be creative yet practical. One or more of the above creativity stimulation techniques can be used when we are confronted by a block to our creativity. A morphological chart can be used to perform synthesis by joining preliminary ideas or sub solutions together to form total design concepts. Barriers to creativity: Blocks. Knowledge blocks: engineers need to be knowledgeable about scientific principles and phenomena if they expect to generate creative yet practical design solutions to technical problems. Perceptual blocks: sometimes one is unable to properly discern important aspects of the problem that is to be solved. This may be due to stereotyping elements, delimiting the problem, and information overload. Emotional blocks: they tend to limit our willingness to try new and uncertain approaches in solving a problem. Cultural blocks and expectations: different companies can have very different cultural predilections that are reflected in their work environments and in the products or services that they provide. Expressive blocks: inhibit one s ability to communicate effectively wit others and with oneself. Creativity stimulation techniques Brainstorming: generate as many ideas as possible in the given amount of time. Brain writing: variation on brainstorming, where ideas are written on a paper and then passed on so that one can get inspiration forms other ideas. Bionics: one searches for an existing solution within nature that can be adapted to solve the problem under consideration. Check listing: one uses words and questions to trigger creative thought. Synectics: this method has nine phases, which include the use of analogies and metaphors to trigger ideas, and two other particularly unique activities: making the familiar strange and making the strange familiar. Analogies, adaption, and duplicated design: the method of analogies recommends that we seek different types of analogies to the problem under consideration that can then be used as the basis for design solutions. 4 types of analogies are: Direct analogy: the current problem is directly related to a similar problem which has been solved. Fantasy analogy: when confronted by a problem that cannot be easily solved, imagine that a solutio n already exists. Symbolic analogy: when confronted by a problem that cannot be easily solved, use a poetic or literary analogy to generate ideas. Personal analogy: in which one imagines being part of the system in order to view the problem from a different perspective. Obtain a fresh perspective: simply describe the problem that you are struggling to solve to someone else who is not involved in the design effort. Inversion: states that one should concentrate on ways to make a product or system less effective and then invert these ideas to form ways in which the product can be improved.

Hoofdstuk 10 design analysis Design evaluation via such tools as decision matrices and the Kepner-Tregoe analysis method allow engineers to: - Prioritize design goals - Rank each design alternative in terms of its ability to achieve the desired goals - Determine the so-called best solution to the problem - Identity the relative strengths and weaknesses (including potential hazards) of the so-called best design. Kepner-Tregoe potential problem analysis, in which one compares and contrasts the specific risks associated with each of the proposed solutions, should always be performed. The engineer must remember to maintain the highest level of critical objectivity when developing a decision matrix in order to avoid misleading or incorrect results due to subjectivity. Costs associated with the design and development of any new device, system, or process must be carefully estimated. Zie samenvatting van de sheets, dit is goed te doen door alleen door te lezen.

Hoofstuk 11 implementation Poor implementation of a design concept can lead to failure or tragedy. Engineers should determine the processes, materials, and equipment that will be used in fabrication, assembly, and other manufacturing operations as they develop the design concepts itself (concurrent engineering). Materials chosen for an engineering design must match the performance, environmental, processing, and financial requirements of the product or system. Design for X (DFX) provides valuable guidelines for developing successful products; X may represent manufacturability, assembly, reliability, quality, packaging, maintainability, disassembly, and recyclability. DFX seeks to achieve the following objectives, all which can be critical to a design s ultimate success or failure: - Superior, or at least satisfactory, performance of all design functions, that is, satisfy the customers needs. - Minimum cost - Minimum maintenance and repair - High levels of quality and reliability - Fastest time to market - Environmentally safe products and processes. - Designs that can be updated and upgraded as necessary Design for manufacturability and design for assembly: - Employ a division of labor - Use interchangeable (standardized parts) - Use assembly line operations - Use machines whenever appropriate - Use modular design an subassemblies - Use rapid prototyping - Minimize the number of parts - Minimize part variations - Design parts to be multifunctional - Avoid separate fasteners - Minimize the number of assembly operations - Maximize tolerances for easy assembly - Provide access for easy assembly Design for reliability: reliability has been defined as the probability that a device will satisfactorily perform a specified function for a specified period of time under given operating conditions. Design for quality: emphasizes this need to satisfy customer requirements and expectations by minimizing the potential impact of variations in a product s manufacture and operation. Special DFQ strategies include: the Taguchi engineering method (reduce undesirable variability), benchmarking (examine best practices), and quality function deployment (use customer feedback for house of quality). Design for packaging: provides guidelines for making packages aesthetically pleasing and cost effective. Design for maintainability: emphasizes the need to ensure that a product will continue to operate properly with only minimum maintenance and repair. Design for disassembly and design for recyclability are two strategies that focus the engineer s attention on the end of a product s operating life; they encourage engineers to select materials, fasteners, sequential assembly operations, and other design elements that will allow obsolete or deteriorated units to be safely and economically reused, recycled or discarded.