EE201 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE

4.0 Multistages / cascaded Amplifier

4.1 Understand the concept of multistage / cascaded amplifier

There is a limit to how much gain can be achieved Irom a single stage ampliIier. Single stage
ampliIiers also have limits on input and output impedance. Multistage ampliIiers are used to
achieve higher gain and to provide better control oI input and output impedances. Two
signiIicant advantages that multistage ampliIiers have over single stage ampliIiers are Ilexibility
in input and output impedance and much higher gain. Multistage ampliIiers can be divided into
two general classes, open-loop and negative Ieedback. Open-loop ampliIiers are easy to
understand and design but are sensitive to environment and component variations. Negative
Ieedback ampliIiers are a bit more diIIicult to understand but have the advantage oI being much
less sensitive to environment and component variations.

This note will Iocus on the open-loop class. A good closed-loop ampliIier begins with a good
open-loop design. For many ampliIier applications it is desirable Ior the input impedance to be
very high. Thus, it is common Ior the Iirst ampliIier stage to be either a common-collector (a.k.a.
emitter Iollower) bipolar iunction transistor stage or a common-drain (a.k.a. source Iollower) or
even common-source Iield eIIect transistor stage. Sometimes high input impedance is not
important and the Iirst stage may be a common-emitter. Field eIIect transistors are normally used
only Ior the input stage and Ior the speciIic application oI very high input impedance. It is also
common situation that it is desirable Ior the output impedance oI an ampliIier to be low. A
common-collector circuit is typically used. But in some cases there is no need Ior very low
output impedance and the last stage may be a common-emitter.

For the ampliIier stages in-between it is common to employ common-emitter circuits because
those can achieve high voltage gain. Analysis oI multistage ampliIiers is perIormed stage at a
time starting with the input stage and progressing to the output stage. The analysis methods are
identical to that oI single stage ampliIiers. One point oI conIusion Ior students analyzing direct
coupled ampliIiers is that the collector resistor Ior one stage becomes the base resistor Ior the
next stage. In stages involving common-collector ampliIiers some modiIied approaches,
including some simpliIying approximations, are necessary because characteristics oI common
collector stages are dependent on external impedances. The student should not be aIraid oI
approximations since that is routinely done all the time in the proIession. An advantage oI closed
loop ampliIiers is that approximation errors are greatly reduced.

The design oI multistage ampliIiers begins at the output and progresses backwards to the input.
Initially the number oI stages is not known. The design progresses with additional stages until
the requirements are met. It is common Ior there to be a lot oI iteration in the design and the
number oI stages might vary with each iteration.

4.1.1 State the purpose of multistage / cascaded amplifier

Single-stage transistor ampliIiers are inadequate Ior meeting most design requirement Ior any
oI the Iour ampliIier types (voltage, current, transconductance and transresistance). Compared to
single stage ampliIier, multistage ampliIiers provide increase input resistance, reduced output
resistance, increased gain, and increased power handling capability. Multistage ampliIiers
commonly implemented on integrated circuits where large numbers oI transistors with common
(matched) parameters are available.

Typical inverter (Common Emitter) has moderately large gain and has input and output
resistances in the Kilo Ohm range. Follower conIiguration has much higher input resistance,
lower output resistance but has only unity gain. AmpliIier requires the desirable Ieatures oI both
conIigurations.








4.1.2 Draw the block diagram of multistage /cascaded amplifier

Figure 4.1: Cascaded ampliIier, a simpliIied diagram

4.1.3 Explain the working principle of multistage / cascaded amplifier

A cascade ampliIier is any ampliIier constructed Irom a series oI ampliIiers, where each
ampliIier sends its output to the input oI the next ampliIier in a daisy chain.
A cascade is basically a diIIerential ampliIier with one input grounded and the side with
the real input has no load. It can also be seen as a common collector (emitter Iollower) Iollowed
by a common base. Since the input side has no load there is no gain on that side and the Miller
eIIect does not come into play. In addition, Vds or Vce stays Iairly constant which reduces
distortion. Its advantage over the cascade is that it does not require as much voltage headroom.
Its disadvantage is since it has two legs it requires twice as much current as a cascade Ior similar
perIormance.
The complication in calculating the gain oI cascaded stages is the non-ideal coupling
between stages due to loading. Two cascaded common emitter stages are shown below. Because
the input resistance oI the second stage Iorms a voltage divider with the output resistance oI the
Iirst stage, the total gain is not the product oI the individual (separated) stages.
The total voltage gain can be calculated in either oI two ways. First way: the gain oI the Iirst
stage is calculated including the loading oI R
i2
. Then the second-stage gain is calculated Irom the
output oI the Iirst stage. Because the loading (output divider) was accounted Ior in the Iirst-stage
gain, the second-stage gain input quantity is the Q2 base voltage, V
B2
V
o1
.
Second way: the Iirst-stage gain is Iound by disconnecting the input oI the second stage, thereby
eliminating output loading. Then the Thevenin-equivalent output oI the Iirst stage is connected to
the input oI the second stage and its gain is calculated, including the input divider Iormed by the
Iirst-stage output resistance and second-stage input resistance. In this case, the Iirst-stage gain
output quantity is the Thevenin-equivalent voltage, not the actual collector voltage oI the stage-
connected ampliIier. The second way includes inter stage loading as an input divider in the gain
oI the second stage while the Iirst way includes it as an output divider in the gain oI the Iirst
stage.
By cascading a CE stage Iollowed by an emitter-Iollower (CC) stage, a good voltage ampliIier
results. The CE input resistance is high and CC output resistance is low. The CC contributes no
increase in voltage gain but provides a near voltage-source (low resistance) output so that the
gain is nearly independent oI load resistance. The high input resistance oI the CE stage makes
the input voltage nearly independent oI input-source resistance. Multiple CE stages can be
cascaded and CC stages inserted between them to reduce attenuation due to inter-stage loading.

4.1.4 Relate the performance of multi stage amplifier in terms of signal amplification

4.2 Understand the concepts of feedback
Concepts oI Ieedback
The basic ampliIier is in principle not ideal. It has a not inIinite input impedance, its output
impedance is not zero. Under these conditions the Ieedback network will inIluence the open loop
gain, where its output and input impedance will load the input and output impedance oI the basic
ampliIier, respectively.
Feedback is to return part oI the output to the input Ior a circuit/system (ampliIiers in our
context). Feedback is very useIul in Control Theory and Systems and is well
researched.AmpliIier circuit can have negative Ieedback and positive Ieedback. Negative
Ieedback returns part oI the output to oppose the input, whereas in positive Ieedback the
Ieedback signal aids the input signal. Both negative Ieedback and positive Ieedback are used in
ampliIier circuits. Negative Ieedback can reduce the gain oI the ampliIier, but it has many
advantages, such as stabilization oI gain, reduction oI nonlinear distortion and noise, control oI
input and output impedances, and extension oI bandwidth.

4.2.1 Draw the block diagram of feedback

Figure 4.2 : Block Diagram of feedback


4.2.2 States the types of feedback
a. Positive Ieedback
b. Negative Ieedback

4.2.3 Differentiate negative and positive feedback

There are two types oI Ieedback in ampliIiers. They are POSITIVE FEEDBACK, also called
REGENERATIVE FEEDBACK, and NEGATIVE FEEDBACK, also called DEGENERATIVE
FEEDBACK. The diIIerence between these two types is whether the Ieedback signal is in phase
or out oI phase with the input signal.
Positive Ieedback occurs when the Ieedback signal is in phase with the input signal. This
means that the Ieedback signal will add to or 'regenerate the input signal. The result is a larger
amplitude output signal than would occur without the Ieedback. This type oI Ieedback is what
causes the public address system to squeal as described above.

4.2.4 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of negative feedback
Advantages oI negative Ieedback
Can increase or decrease input impedance (depending on type oI Ieedback)
Can increase or decrease output impedance (depending on type oI Ieedback)
Reduces distortion (increase linearity)
Increases the bandwidth
Desensitizes gain to component variations
Can control step response oI ampliIier.

Disadvantages oI negative Ieedback
May lead to instability iI not designed careIully
The gain oI the ampliIier decreases
The input and output impedances oI the ampliIier with Ieedback (the closed-loop
ampliIier) become sensitive to the gain oI the ampliIier without Ieedback (the open-loop
ampliIier); that exposes these impedances to variations in the open loop gain, Ior
example, due to parameter variations or due to nonlinearity oI the open loop gain.










4.2.5 Explain the basic feedback concepts

a. ideal closed-loop gain


Figure 4.3: ideal closed-loop gain


b. Gain sensitivity
Consider the closed-loop gain`s sensitivity to the ampliIier`s open-loop gain. A Iractional change
in closed-loop gain is described by

Where dA
OL
/A
OL
is the Iractional change in open-loop gain. So iI A
OL
10,000 V/V and b1/10
V/V, and iI the open loop gain changes 10 (dA
OL
/A
OL
10), then the closed-loop gain only
changes 0.01 (dA
CL
/A
CL
0.01).

c. Bandwidth extension

Feedback can be used to extend the bandwidth oI an ampliIier (speed it up) at the cost oI
lowering the ampliIier gain. Figure 4.4 shows such a comparison. The Iigure is understood as
Iollows. Without Ieedback the so-called open-loop gain in this example has a single time
constant Ierequency response given by:

Where Ic is the cutoII or corner Ierequency oI the ampliIier: in this example Ic10
4
Hz and the
gain at zero Irequency A
0
10
5
V/V. The Iigure shows the gain is Ilat out to the corner
Ierequency and then drops. When Ieedback is present the so-called closed-loop gain, as shown in
the Iormula oI the previous section, becomes,




The last expression shows the Ieedback ampliIier still has a single time constant behavior, but the
corner Ierequency is now increased by the improvement Iactor (1BA0), and the gain at zero
Ierequency has dropped by exactly the same Iactor. This behavior is called the gain-bandwidth
tradeoII. In Figure 4.4, ( 1 A
0
) 10
3
, so
1-
(0) 10
5
/ 10
3
100 V/V, and 1

increases to 10
4

10
3
10
7
Hz.

Figure 4.4 : Gain vs. Irequency Ior a single pole ampliIier with and without Ieedback; corner
Irequencies are labeled.

d. Noise sensitivity

Figure 4.5: Noise signal reIerred to the input

II an ampliIier (assumed to be noise Iree or very low noise) is placed beIore the noisy ampliIier,
then the Signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio is greatly enhanced (by a Iactor equal to the preceding
ampliIier gain).

e. Reduction of non-linear distortion



Figure 4.6: Reduction oI non-linear distortion

II a pre-ampliIier with gain 1000 is placed beIore the nonlinear one so that and the
whole ampliIier is used with negative Ieedback, and the gain Ior whole
ampliIier becomes:


1 .
0 10 - Ior 98 . 9
10 0 Ior 99 . 9


o 1
o 1


which greatly reduce the nonlinear distortion.
This is achieved through compensatory distortion oI the input signal.
As a summary, negative Ieedback is very useIul in ampliIier circuits. It can help stabilize
the gain, reduce nonlinear distortion and reduce noise.
Also, as will be shown later, negative Ieedback in ampliIiers can also control input and
output impedance.

4.3 Understand the analysis of multistage amplifier
4.3.1 Draw RC coupling configuration

Figure 4.7: RC coupling conIiguration

4.3.2 Explain briefly the RC coupling circuit
R-C coupled ampliIier: Figure 4.7 shows the 2-stages oI an R-C coupled ampliIier in CE
conIiguration using NPN transistor. The coupling capacitor CC is used to connect two stages oI
the ampliIier. R1, R2 and RE are used Ior biasing and stabilization oI the ampliIier whereas CE
produces a low reactance path to the output signal through the emitter.
Operation: The ac signal is applied to Cin oI the Iirst stage. AmpliIied output is obtained at CC
which is supplied to the input oI the second ampliIier through the coupling capacitor. The second
ampliIier Iurther ampliIies the signal and Iinally the output is obtained at CC oI the second
ampliIier.
II G1 and G2 are the individual gains oI the Iirst and second stages then total gain is given by
product oI G1 and G2. In practical case the total gain is slightly less than G1 .G2 due to the
shunting eIIect oI input resistance oI the second stage thereby reducing the eIIective load oI the
Iirst stage and consequent decrease in gain.
Frequency response:
1. At low Irequency: -- For Irequencies less than 50Hz the reactance oI the coupling
capacitance CC is very high, so very low signal passes through it, thus reducing gain.
Also the CE does not eIIectively shunt the output signal at low Irequency so the voltage
gain decreases Iurther.
2. At medium Irequency: -- For Irequencies in the range oI 50Hz to 20 kHz, voltage gain is
almost constant. Also the low reactance path oI CC increases the gain. The low reactance
increases the loading eIIect oI Iirst stage, so gain decreases. These two Iactors cancel
each other and gain is stabilized.
3. At high Irequency: -- For Irequencies above 20 kHz, CC has very low reactance and
increases the loading eIIect Ior the next stage, thereby decreasing the gain. Also the
iunction capacitance oI emitter -base iunction decreases, resulting in the decrease in,
thereby reducing the gain Iurther.

Figure 4.8: Frequency response RC coupling

Advantages:
O It has very good Irequency response, so that the gain is constant over a wide range oI
Irequencies especially in the audio Irequency range.
O It is simple, small sized and inexpensive circuit as it employs only capacitors and
resistors.
Disadvantages:
O It has low voltage and power gain, because oI the loading eIIect oI the input resistance oI
second stage on the output resistance oI the Iirst stage.
O Poor impedance matching oI the two stages because oI the large diIIerence oI the input
and output resistance oI the two stages, which eIIectively reduces the eIIective load.
Application:
This type oI coupling has constant and very good voltage gain in the audio Irequency range, so it
is used as voltage ampliIier in the audio systems.
Analysis oI multistage ampliIiers is perIormed one stage at a time starting with the input stage
and progressing to the output stage. The analysis methods are identical to that oI single stage
ampliIiers.

4.3.3 Draw direct coupling configuration
a. The CE-CC configuration

Figure 4.9 : CE-CC conIiguration

b. The Darlington Pair


Figure 4.10: Darlington pair
4.3.4 Explain briefly the operation of direct coupling circuit

Figure 4.11: Direct coupling circuit

The various stages are not DC isolated. This Ieature complicates the biasing oI individual
stages.
The various stages can not be similar. Hence the design oI the ampliIier becomes more
complicated.
There is a shiIt oI the collector DC voltage upwards which can avoided by using NPN
and PNP stages.
The absence oI coupling capacitors improves the responses oI the ampliIier.
Less number oI biasing resistors is necessary.

4.3.5 Draw the transformer coupling configuration

Figure 4.12: TransIormer coupling conIiguration


4.3.6 Explain briefly the operation of transformer coupling circuit
To improve the Iull power eIIiciency oI the Class A ampliIier, it is possible to design the circuit
with a transIormer connected directly in the collector circuit to Iorm a circuit called a
TransIormer Coupled AmpliIier. This improves the eIIiciency oI the ampliIier by matching the
impedance oI the load with that oI the ampliIiers output using the turns ratio (N) oI the
transIormer and an example is given below. As the Collector current, Ic is reduced to below the
quiescent, Q-point set up by the base bias voltage, due to variations in the base current, the
magnetic Ilux in the transIormer core collapses causing an induced in the transIormer primary
windings. This causes an instantaneous collector voltage to rise to a value oI twice the supply
voltage 2cc giving a maximum collector current oI twice Ic when the collector voltage is at its
minimum.

4.3.7 Construct and graph frequency response curve of a multistage amplifier

Figure 4.13: Frequency response curve oI a multistage ampliIier

4.3.8 Relate the response curve to the performance of the multistage amplifier
When we want to achieve higher ampliIication than a single stage ampliIier can oIIer, it is a
common practice to cascade various stages oI ampliIiers, as it is shown in Fig.4.14.a. In such a
structure the input perIormance oI the resulted multistage ampliIier is the input perIormance oI
the Iirst ampliIier while the output perIormance is that oI the last ampliIier. It is understood that
combining ampliIiers oI various types we can create those characteristics that are necessary to
IulIill the speciIications oI a speciIic application. In addition, using Ieedback techniques in
properly chosen multistage ampliIiers can Iurther increase this Ireedom oI the design.

Figure 4.14: a) A Multistage ampliIier conIiguration b) Small-signal equivalent oI the ampliIier
in Fig.4.14a

According to the small signal equivalent circuit oI a two stage ampliIier shown in Fig.4.14.b, we
can calculate the ac perIormance oI the circuit.
Joltage amplification:

Current amplification:

Power amplification:

In conclusion, the gain is the product oI the gains oI the individual stages (properly terminated).

Frequency response:
For a multistage ampliIier that consists oI n similar stages, the corner cut-oII Irequencies are
given by,


where, e
L
and e
H
are the low and high corner Irequencies oI the individual stages.

Figure 4.15: Frequency response
Noise:
The noise produced by the Iirst stage oI a multistage ampliIier is the one that dominates
the total noise Iigure oI the ampliIier.
Single ended noiseless ampliIiers retain the same S/N ratio at the input and output oI
the ampliIier
Noisy ampliIiers have a worst S/N ratio at the output compared to the input

4.3.9 Construct a multistage amplifier
Multi-stage ampli1ier
Parts and material
O Three NPN transistors -- model 2N2222 or 2N3403 recommended (Radio Shack catalog
# 276-1617 is a package oI IiIteen NPN transistors ideal Ior this and other experiments)
O Two 6-volt batteries
O One 10 kO potentiometer, single-turn, linear taper (Radio Shack catalog # 271-1715)
O One 1 MO resistor
O Three 100 kO resistors
O Three 10 kO resistors
$.emati. diagram

Figure 4.16: $.emati. diagram

Illustration

Figure 4.17: Illustration
Instru.tions
By connecting three common-emitter ampliIier circuit together -- the collector terminal oI the
previous transistor to the base (resistor) oI the next transistor -- the voltage gains oI each stage
compound to give a very high overall voltage gain. I recommend building this circuit itout the
1 MO Ieedback resistor to begin with, to see Ior yourselI iust how high the unrestricted voltage
gain is. You may Iind it impossible to adiust the potentiometer Ior a stable output voltage (that
isn't saturated at Iull supply voltage or zero), the gain being so high.
Even iI you can't adiust the input voltage Iine enough to stabilize the output voltage in the active
range oI the last transistor, you should be able to tell that the output-to-input relationship is
inverting; that is, the output tends to drive to a high voltage when the input goes low, and vice
versa. Since any one oI the common-emitter "stages" is inverting in itselI, an even number oI
staged common-emitter ampliIiers gives non inverting response, while an odd number oI stages
gives inverting. You may experience these relationships by measuring the collector-to-ground
voltage at ea. transistor while adiusting the input voltage potentiometer, noting whether or not
the output voltage increases or decreases with an increase in input voltage.
Connect the 1 MO Ieedback resistor into the circuit, coupling the collector oI the last transistor to
the base oI the Iirst. Since the overall response oI this three-stage ampliIier is inverting, the
Ieedback signal provided through the 1 MO resistor Irom the output oI the last transistor to the
input oI the Iirst should be negative in nature. As such, it will act to stabilize the ampliIier's
response and minimize the voltage gain. You should notice the reduction in gain immediately by
the decreased sensitivity oI the output signal on input signal changes (changes in potentiometer
position). Simply put, the ampliIier isn't nearly as "touchy" as it was without the Ieedback
resistor in place.
As with the simple common-emitter ampliIier discussed in an earlier experiment, it is a good
idea here to make a table oI input versus output voltage Iigures with which you may calculate
voltage gain.
Experiment with diIIerent values oI Ieedback resistance. What eIIect do you think a de.rease in
Ieedback resistance have on voltage gain? What about an in.rease in Ieedback resistance? Try it
and Iind out!
An advantage oI using negative Ieedback to "tame" a high-gain ampliIier circuit is that the
resulting voltage gain becomes more dependent upon the resistor values and less dependent upon
the characteristics oI the constituent transistors. This is good, because it is Iar easier to
manuIacture consistent resistors than consistent transistors. Thus, it is easier to design an
ampliIier with predictable gain by building a staged network oI transistors with an arbitrarily
high voltage gain, then mitigate that gain precisely through negative Ieedback. It is this same
principle that is used to make operational ampli1ier circuits behave so predictably.
This ampliIier circuit is a bit simpliIied Irom what you will normally encounter in practical
multi-stage circuits. Rarely is a pure common-emitter conIiguration (i.e. with no emitter-to-
ground resistor) used, and iI the ampliIier's service is Ior AC signals, the inter-stage coupling is
oIten capacitive with voltage divider networks connected to each transistor base Ior proper
biasing oI each stage. Radio-Irequency ampliIier circuits are oIten transIormer-coupled, with
capacitors connected in parallel with the transIormer windings Ior resonant tuning.