A

Seminar Report On
P0wFR SYSTFH STAlllTY
&
C0tTR0lllt6 SYSTFH

Session: 2010-2011


Submitted to : - Guided By:- Submitted by :-
Mr. Vinesh Agarwal Ms. Neeru Devi Akhiesh Panwar
Head of Department Lecturer V SEM B.Tech
(Electrical Engineering) (EE Dept. ) Electrical Engineering



O Introduction of Powr Systm:-
1he commerclal use of elecLrlclLv beaan ln Lhe laLe 1870s when arc lamps were used for llahLhouse
lllumlnaLlon and sLreeL llahLlna
1he flrsL compleLe elecLrlc power svsLem was bullL bv 1homas Ldlson 1hls was a dc svsLem conslsLlna of
a sLeamenalne drlven dc aeneraLor supplvlna power Lo 39 cusLomers wlLh ln Lhe area 13 km ln radlus
1he supplled volLaae was 110v Lhrouah an underaround cable svsLem AfLer a few vear a moLor load
were added Lo such svsLem 1hls was Lhe bealnnlna of whaL would develop lnLo one of Lhe laraesL
lndusLrles ln Lhe world
ln Lhe spllL of Lhe lnlLlal wldespread use of dc svsLem Lhev were almosL compleLelv superseded bv ac
svsLem 8v 1886 Lhe llmlLaLlon of dc svsLem were becomlna lncreaslnalv apparenL 1hev could dellver
power onlv a shorL dlsLance from Lhe aeneraLors 1o keep Lransmlsslon power losses and volLaae drops
Lo Lhe accepLable levels volLaae levels had Lo hlah for lonadlsLance power Lransmlsslon Such hlah
volLaaes were noL accepLable for aeneraLlon and consumpLlon of power Lherefore a convenlenL means
for volLaae LransformaLlon became necesslLv
With in a Iew year in London Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs demonstrated the Iirst
transIormer suitable Ior use in a real power system. The practical value oI Gaulard and Gibbs'
transIormer was demonstrated in 1884 at Turin where the transIormer was used to light up Iorty
kilometres (25 miles) oI railway Irom a single alternating current generator.One oI
Westinghouse's engineers, William Stanley, recognised the problem with connecting
transIormers in series as opposed to parallel and also realised that making the iron core oI a
transIormer a Iully-enclosed loop would improve the voltage regulation oI the secondary
winding. Using this knowledge he built a much improved alternating current power system at
Great Barrington, Massachusetts in 1886.
By 1890 the power industry had Ilourished and power companies had built literally thousands oI
power systems (both direct and alternating current) in the United States and Europe - these
networks were eIIectively dedicated to providing electric lighting. During this time a Iierce
rivalry known as the "War oI Currents" emerged between Edison and Westinghouse over which
Iorm oI transmission (direct or alternating current) was superior. In 1891, Westinghouse installed
the Iirst maior power system that was designed to drive an electric motor and not iust provide
electric lighting. The installation powered a 100 horsepower (75 kW) synchronous motor at
Colorado. On the other side oI the Atlantic, Oskar von Miller built a 20 kV 176 km three-phase
transmission line Irom LauIIen am Neckar to FrankIurt am Main Ior the Electrical Engineering
Exhibition in FrankIurt.
|8|
In 1895, aIter a protracted decision-making process, the Adams No. 1
generating station at Niagara Falls began transIerring three-phase alternating current power to
BuIIalo at 11 kV. Following completion oI the Niagara Falls proiect, new power systems
increasingly chose alternating current as opposed to direct current Ior electrical transmission.

In 1936 the Iirst commercial HVDC (high voltage direct current) line using Mercury arc valves
was built between Schenectady and Mechanicville, New York. HVDC had previously been
achieved by installing direct current generators in series (a system known as the Thury system)
although this suIIered Irom serious reliability issues. In 1957 Siemens demonstrated the Iirst
solid-state rectiIier (solid-state rectiIiers are now the standard Ior HVDC systems) however it
was not until the early 1970s that this technology was used in commercial power systems.

In
recent times, many important developments have come Irom extending innovations in the
inIormation technology and telecommunications Iield to the power engineering Iield. For
example, the development oI computers meant load Ilow studies could be run more eIIiciently
allowing Ior much better planning oI power systems. Advances in inIormation technology and
telecommunication also allowed Ior remote control oI a power system's switchgear and
generators.
O STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM :-
The power system diagram illustrate the basic element oI modern power system. Electric
power is produced by the GS and transmitted to consumers through a complex network oI
individual components, including transmission lines, transIormer and switching device.
It is common practice to classiIy the transmission network into the Iollowing subsystem:
1. Transmission system
2. Sub transmission system
3. Distribution system
The transmission system interconnects all maior generating stations and main load
centers in the system. It Iorms the backbone oI the integrated power system and
operates at the highest voltage levels. The generators voltage are usually in the range oI
11 to 35 kv. These are stepped up to the transmission voltage level and power is
transmitted to transmission substation where the voltage are stepped down to the sub
transmission level typically 69 to 138 kv . The generation and transmission subsystem are
oIten reIerred as the bulk power system.
The sub transmission system transmits power in smaller quantities Irom the transmission
substation to the distribution substation. Large industrial customers are commonly
supplied directly Irom the sub transmission system. In some system, there is no clear
demarcation between sub transmission and transmission circuit.
The distribution system represent the Iinal stage in the transIer oI power to the individual
customers. The primary distribution voltage is typically between 4 kv and 34.5kv. Small
industrial customers are supplied by primary Ieeders at this voltage level. The secondary
distribution Ieeders residential and commercial customers at 120/240 V.









*ower 5ystem 5tab|||ty Cverv|ew*
O 9ower svsLem ls deflned as a neLwork of one or more aeneraLlna unlLs
loads and power Lransmlsslon llnes lncludlna Lhe assoclaLed equlpmenLs
connecLed Lo lL
O 1he sLablllLv of a power svsLem ls lLs ablllLv Lo develop resLorlna forces
equal Lo or areaLer Lhan Lhe dlsLurblna forces Lo malnLaln Lhe sLaLe of
equlllbrlum
O 9ower svsLem sLablllLv problem aeLs more pronounced ln case of
lnLerconnecLlon of larae power neLworks

*ower 5ystem 5tab|||ty A roposed Def|n|t|on*
9ower svsLem sLablllLv ls Lhe ablllLv of an elecLrlc power svsLem for a alven
lnlLlal operaLlna condlLlon Lo reaaln a sLaLe of operaLlna equlllbrlum afLer
belna sub[ecLed Lo a phvslcal dlsLurbance wlLh mosL svsLem varlables
bounded so Lhe pracLlcallv Lhe enLlre svsLem remalns lnLacL
*Need of 5tab|||ty C|ass|f|cat|on*
O SLablllLv analvsls ls easler Also lL leads Lo proper and effecLlve
undersLandlna of dlfferenL power svsLem lnsLablllLles
O ev facLors LhaL leads Lo lnsLablllLv can be easllv ldenLlfled
O ,eLhods can be devlsed for lmprovlna power svsLem sLablllLv

So Lhese are Lhe baslc reason due Lo whlch Lhe classlflcaLlon of Lhe sLablllLv
ls lnLroduced 1he few Lvpe of sLablllLv ls alven below


*ower 5ystem 5tab|||ty C|ass|f|cat|on*
O otor ang|e stab|||ty
O Small dlsLurbance anale sLablllLv
O 1ranslenL sLablllLv
O IolLaae sLablllLv
O Small dlsLurbance volLaae sLablllLv
O arae dlsLurbance volLaae sLablllLv
O requency stab|||ty
O ShorL Lerm frequencv sLablllLv
O ona Lerm frequencv sLablllLv
otor Ang|e 5tab|||ty
O oLor anale sLablllLv refers Lo Lhe ablllLv of svnchronous machlnes of an
lnLerconnecLed power svsLem Lo remaln ln svnchronlsm afLer belna
sub[ecLed Lo a dlsLurbance
O oLor anale lnsLablllLv occurs due Lo anaular swlnas of some aeneraLors
leadlna Lo Lhelr loss of svnchronlsm wlLh oLher aeneraLors
O epends on Lhe ablllLv Lo malnLaln/resLore equlllbrlum beLween
elecLromaaneLlc Lorque and mechanlcal Lorque of each svnchronous
machlne
O AL equlllbrlum lnpuL mechanlcal Lorque equals ouLpuL elecLromaaneLlc
Lorque of each aeneraLor ln case of anv dlsLurbance Lhe above equallLv
doesn'L hold leadlna Lo acceleraLlon/ deceleraLlon of roLors of machlnes

otor Ang|e 5tab|||ty C|ass|f|cat|on
O 5mo// uisturbonce kotor 4no/e 5tobi/ity
O lL ls Lhe ablllLv of Lhe power svsLem Lo malnLaln svnchronlsm
under small dlsLurbances
O lsLurbances are consldered Lo be sufflclenLlv small such LhaL
Lhe llnearlzaLlon of svsLem equaLlons ls permlsslble for
purposes of analvsls
O 1he Llme frame of lnLeresL ln smalldlsLurbance sLablllLv sLudles
ls of Lhe order of 10 Lo 20 seconds followlna a dlsLurbance

O oroe uisturbonce kotor 4no/e 5tobi/ity
O lL ls Lhe ablllLv of Lhe power svsLem Lo malnLaln svnchronlsm
under a severe dlsLurbance such as a shorL clrculL on a
Lransmlsslon llne
O lsLurbances are larae so LhaL Lhe llnearlzaLlon of svsLem
equaLlons ls noL permlsslble for purposes of analvsls
O 1he Llme frame of lnLeresL ln smalldlsLurbance sLablllLv sLudles
ls of Lhe order of 3 Lo 3 seconds followlna a dlsLurbance

Vo|tage 5tab|||ty
O IolLaae sLablllLv refers Lo Lhe ablllLv of a power svsLem Lo
malnLaln sLeadv volLaaes aL all buses ln Lhe svsLem afLer belna
sub[ecLed Lo a dlsLurbance from a alven lnlLlal operaLlna
condlLlon
O A svsLem ls volLaae lnsLable lf for aLleasL one bus ln Lhe svsLem
Lhe volLaae maanlLude decreases as reacLlve power ln[ecLlon ls
lncreased
O IolLaae lnsLablllLv resulLs ln proaresslve fall or rlse of volLaaes
of some buses
O arae scale effecL of volLaae lnsLablllLv leads Lo IolLaae
collapse lL ls a process bv whlch Lhe sequence of evenLs
accompanvlna volLaae lnsLablllLv leads Lo a blackouL or
abnormallv low volLaaes ln a slanlflcanL parL of Lhe power
svsLem
O 1he drlvlna force for volLaae lnsLablllLv ls usuallv Lhe loads
O IolLaae sLablllLv problems ls also experlenced aL Lermlnals of
PI llnks connecLed Lo weak ac svsLems



Vo|tage 5tab|||ty C|ass|f|cat|on
O 5ma|| D|sturbance Vo|tage 5tab|||ty
O SmalldlsLurbance volLaae sLablllLv refers Lo Lhe svsLem'sablllLv
Lo malnLaln sLeadv volLaaes when sub[ecLed Lo small
dlsLurbances such as lncremenLal chanaes ln svsLem load
O A comblnaLlon of boLh llnear and nonllnear Lechnlques are
used for analvsls
O arge D|sturbance Vo|tage 5tab|||ty
O araedlsLurbance volLaae sLablllLv refers Lo Lhe svsLem'sablllLv
Lo malnLaln sLeadv volLaaes followlna larae dlsLurbances such
as svsLem faulLs loss of aeneraLlon or clrculL conLlnaencles
O 1he sLudv perlod of lnLeresL mav exLend from a few seconds Lo
Lens of mlnuLes
requency 5tab|||ty
O requencv sLablllLv refers Lo Lhe ablllLv of a power svsLem Lo
malnLaln sLeadv frequencv followlna a severe svsLem upseL
resulLlna ln a slanlflcanL lmbalance beLween aeneraLlon and
load
O requencv lnsLablllLv leads Lo Lrlpplna of aeneraLlna unlLs
and/or loads
O requencv sLablllLv mav be a shorLLerm phenomenon or a
lonaLerm phenomenon






*ower system contro|*
1he funct|on of e|ectr|c power system |s to convert from one the natura||y
ava||ab|e forms to the e|ectr|ca| form and to transport |t to the po|nts of
consumpt|on Lnergy |s se|dom consumed |n the e|ectr|ca| energy but |t rather
converted to another form such as heat||ght and mechan|ca| energy
1he qua||ty of power supp|y must meet certa|n m|n|um standards w|th the
fo||ow|ng factors
1 Constant of frequency
2 Constant of vo|tage
3 eve| of re||ab|||ty

Given the complexity oI the power system and its dynamic phenomena, one would
expect that various controls have been developed over time to control various
phenomena. These developments have Iollowed the availability oI enabling
hardware technologies (e.g. electronics, communications, microprocessors) as well
as the evolution oI control methodologies. In this section, a brieI survey is
presented oI the various controls available today. The survey is neither
comprehensive nor complete but is meant to provide a general Ieel Ior the
technologies being utilized today and the phenomena that are being controlled.

Voltage Control
As is mentioned beIore, one way to control node voltages is by varying the
excitation oI the rotating generators. This is done by a Ieedback control loop that
changes the excitation current in the generator to maintain a particular node
voltage. This control is very Iast. Another way to control node voltage is to change
the tap setting oI a transIormer connected to the node. Other ways are to switch
shunt capacitors or reactors at the nodes. These changes can be made manually by
the operator or automatically by implementing a Ieedback control that senses the
node voltage and activates the control. Unlike the generator excitation control,
transIormer taps and shunt reactances can only be changed in discrete quantities.
OIten this type oI control schemes has time delays built into them to avoid
excessive control actions. More recently power electronic control devices have
been introduced in the shunt reactance voltage control schemes. This makes the
control much more continuous and oIten is done it a much Iaster time Irame than
the usual shunt switching. These static var controllers (SVC) are becoming more
common. As is obvious, voltage control is always a local control. However,
controlling the voltage at one node aIIects the neighboring nodes.

Transmission power flow control :

Most power systems have Iree Ilowing transmission lines. This means that
although power iniections and node voltages are controlled quite closely, the
power Ilow on each transmission line is usually not controlled. However, such
control is Ieasible. A phase shiIting transIormer can control the power Ilow across
it by changing the phase using taps. This has been used, especially on the Eastern
interconnection in North America. The control is local, discrete and slow. A power
electronic version oI this is now under experimentation. The maior advantage oI
the AC transmission grid is its Iree Ilowing lines with relatively less control and so
the wholesale control oI every transmission line is not desirable and is not
contemplated. However, controls on some lines have always been necessary and
some new advantages may be realized in the more deregulated power system when
monitoring transactions between buyers and sellers have to be better controlled.
Flow over DC transmission lines is always controlled and the control is very Iast.
The number oI DC lines is only a handIul.
Frequency Control:-
Frequency is controlled by balancing the load with generation. The governors on
every generator senses any change in the rotational speed and adiusts the
mechanical input power. This governor control is the primary control Ior
maintaining Irequency. A secondary control to set the governor set points is used
to ensure that the steady state always returns to 60Hz. The governor control is
local at the generator and Iast. The secondary control is done over the whole
system. This secondary control is done by the central controller and is slow. This
control is also known as Automatic Generation Control (AGC) or Load Frequency
Control (LFC). In North America and Western Europe, the Irequency is controlled
quite tightly whereas in many other places, even in developed economies as the
United Kingdom and Scandinavia, Irequency is allowed to vary over wider range.
As the deviation oI Irequency Irom 60Hz is a symptom oI the imbalance between
generation and load, the Irequency control perIormance requirement depends
on how well one wants to control the power supply commitments made between
seller and buyer.
Control Center
As mentioned in the above sections most oI the controls are local. The only area
wide control is the secondary Irequency control or AGC. This is implemented as a
Ieedback control loop in which the generator outputs and tie-line Ilows are
measured and brought back to the control center and the governor control setpoints
are calculated and sent out to the generators Irom the control center. The data rate
both input and output is between 2 and 4 seconds. The control center perIorms
many other Iunctions although AGC is the only automatic Ieedback control
Iunction. The main Iunction is real time data acquisition Irom all over the grid so
that the operator can monitor its operation. Another is the manual operation oI
controls like opening or closing circuit breakers, changing transIormer taps, etc.
These Iunctions are iointly known as the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) and the control center is oIten reIerred to as SCADA.