Advanced Mathematics

Module 1: Introduction to
Numerical Methods

Prepared by:

ENGR. MICHAEL ERNIE F. RODRIGUEZ

Instructor, Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology
Palawan State University
 Module 1
INTRODUCTION TO NUMERICAL METHODS

Overview
This module is designed to guide you to numerical methods and provide motivation by demonstrating
how these techniques can be used in the engineering modeling process. The computer-related
aspects of numerical methods are introduced and the skills that you should acquire in order to
implement numerical techniques using computers. Also, approximation and error analysis are
discussed to understand the effective use of numerical methods.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain reasons to study numerical methods.
2. Apply measurement concepts to describe and quantify errors.
3. Use Taylor series in approximating various functions.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Numerical methods are techniques by which mathematical problems are formulated so that they can
be solved with arithmetic operations. Although there are many kinds of numerical methods, they have
one common characteristic: they invariably involve large numbers of tedious arithmetic calculations.
It is little wonder that with the development of fast, efficient digital computers, the role of numerical
methods in engineering problem solving has increased dramatically in recent years. Numerical
methods are sometimes referred to as computer mathematics because digital computers excel at
performing such operations.

Reasons to Study Numerical Methods

There are several other reasons why you should study numerical methods aside from contributing to
your overall education:
1. Numerical methods greatly expand the types of problems you can address. They are capable
of handling large systems of equations, nonlinearities, and complicated geometries that are
not uncommon in engineering and science and that are often impossible to solve analytically
with standard calculus. As such, they greatly enhance your problem-solving skills.
2. Numerical methods allow you to use “canned” software with insight. During your career, you
will invariably have occasion to use commercially available prepackaged computer programs
that involve numerical methods. The intelligent use of these programs is greatly enhanced by
an understanding of the basic theory underlying the methods. In the absence of such
understanding, you will be left to treat such packages as “black boxes” with little critical insight
into their inner workings or the validity of the results they produce.
3. Many problems cannot be approached using canned programs. If you are conversant with
numerical methods, and are adept at computer programming, you can design your own
programs to solve problems without having to buy or commission expensive software.
4. Numerical methods are an efficient vehicle for learning to use computers. Because numerical
methods are expressly designed for computer implementation, they are ideal for illustrating
the computer’s powers and limitations. When you successfully implement numerical methods
on a computer, and then apply them to solve otherwise intractable problems, you will be

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 provided with a dramatic demonstration of how computers can serve your professional
development. At the same time, you will also learn to acknowledge and control the errors of
approximation that are part and parcel of large-scale numerical calculations.
5. Numerical methods provide a vehicle for you to reinforce your understanding of mathematics.
Because one function of numerical methods is to reduce higher mathematics to basic
arithmetic operations, they get at the “nuts and bolts” of some otherwise obscure topics.
Enhanced understanding and insight can result from this alternative perspective.
With these reasons as motivation, we can now set out to understand how numerical methods
and digital computers work in tandem to generate reliable solutions to mathematical problems.

Mathematical Procedures
In this course, the numerical methods for different mathematical procedures will be discussed such
as:
1. Roots of Equations
These problems are concerned with the value of a variable or a parameter that satisfies a single
nonlinear equation. These problems are especially valuable in engineering design contexts where
it is often impossible to explicitly solve design equations for parameters.
2. Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations
These problems are similar in spirit to roots of equations in the sense that they are concerned
with values that satisfy equations. However, in contrast to satisfying a single equation, a set of
values is sought that simultaneously satisfies a set of linear algebraic equations. Such equations
arise in a variety of problem contexts and in all disciplines of engineering.
3. Curve Fitting
You will often have occasion to fit curves to data points. The techniques developed for this
purpose can be divided into two general categories: regression and interpolation. Regression is
employed where there is a significant degree of error associated with the data. Experimental
results are often of this kind. For these situations, the strategy is to derive a single curve that
represents the general trend of the data without necessarily matching any individual points. In
contrast, interpolation is used where the objective is to determine intermediate values between
relatively error-free data points. Such is usually the case for tabulated information. For these
situations, the strategy is to fit a curve directly through the data points and use the curve to predict
the intermediate values.
4. Integration and Differentiation
As depicted, a physical interpretation of numerical integration is the determination of the area
under a curve. Numerical integration formulas play an important role in the solution of differential
equations. Numerical differentiation, as you know from your study of calculus, involves the
determination of a function’s slope or its rate of change.
5. Ordinary Differential Equations
Ordinary differential equations are of great significance in engineering practice. This is because
many physical laws are couched in terms of the rate of change of a quantity rather than the
magnitude of the quantity itself. In this course, only initial-value problems are addressed.

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 (a) Roots of Equations (b) Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations

(c) Regression (d) Interpolation

(e) Integration and Differentiation (f) Ordinary Differential Equations

Figure 1.1 Graphical Depiction of the Different Numerical Methods

1.2 PROGRAMMING AND SOFTWARE

In this lesson, we will discuss how to use the computer as a tool to obtain numerical solutions to a
given engineering model. The two ways in using computers is to use available software or write
computer programs to extend the capabilities of available software, such as Excel and MATLAB.
Engineers should not be tool limited; it is important that they should be able to do both!

Computer Programs
Computer programs are set of instructions that direct the computer to perform a certain task. To be
able to perform engineering-oriented numerical calculations, you should be familiar with the following
programming topics:
• Simple information representation (constants, variables, and type declaration)
• Advanced information representation (data structure, arrays, and records)
• Mathematical formulas (assignment, priority rules, and intrinsic functions)
• Input/Output
• Logical representation (sequence, selection, and repetition)
• Modular programming (functions and subroutines)
Assuming that you have some prior exposure to programming, we will focus our discussion on
the last two topics.

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Structured Programming
Structured programming is a set of rules that prescribe good style habits for programmer. Today, it is
recognized that there are many benefits to writing organized, well-structured code. Aside from the
obvious benefit of making software much easier to share, it also helps generate much more efficient
program development. That is, well-structured algorithms are invariably easier to debug and test,
resulting in programs that take a shorter time to develop, test, and update.
The key idea is that any numerical algorithm can be composed of using the three fundamental
structures: sequence, selection, and repetition. By limiting ourselves to these structures, the resulting
computer code will be clearer and easier to follow.

Modular Programming
The approach where computer programs can be divided into subprograms, or modules, that can be
developed and tested separately, is called modular programming.
The most important attribute of modules is that they be as independent and self-contained as
possible. In addition, they are typically designed to perform a specific, well-defined function and have
one entry and one exit point. As such, they are usually short (generally 50 to 100 instructions in
length) and highly focused.
The advantages of modular programming are:
• It is easier to understand the underlying logic of smaller modules.
• They are easier to debug and test.
• Facilitate program maintenance and modification.
• Allows you to maintain your own library of modules for later use.

Excel
Excel is the spreadsheet developed by Microsoft, Inc. Spreadsheet are a special type of software that
allow the user to enter and perform calculations on rows and columns of data. When any value on
the sheet is changed, entire calculation is updated, therefore, spreadsheets are ideal for “what if?”
sorts of analysis.
Excel has some built in numerical capabilities including equation solving, curve fitting and
optimization. It also includes VBA as a macro language that can be used to implement numerical
calculations. Finally, has several visualization tools, such as graphs and three-dimensional plots, that
serve as valuable adjuncts for numerical analysis.

MATLAB
MATLAB is the flagship software product of The MathWorks, Inc., which was cofounded by the
numerical analysts Cleve Moler and John N. Little. As the name implies, MATLAB was originally
developed as a matrix laboratory. To this day, the major element of MATLAB is still the matrix. A
variety of numerical functions, symbolic computations, and visualization tools have been added to the
matrix manipulations.
MATLAB has a variety of functions and operators that allow convenient implementation of many
of the numerical methods. Programs can be written as so-called M-files that can be used to implement
numerical calculations. The use of MATLAB is closely related to programming.

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1.3 MEASURING ERRORS
In any numerical analysis, errors will arise during the calculations. To be able to deal with the issue
of errors, we need to identify where the error is coming from, followed by quantifying the error, and
lastly minimize the error as per our needs. In this lesson, we will concentrate on quantifying errors.
We need to measure errors because we need to determine the accuracy of numerical results and to
develop stopping criteria for iterative algorithms.

True Error
True error denoted by 𝐸𝑡 is the difference between the true value in a calculation and the approximate
value found using a numerical method etc.
True Error (𝐸𝑡 ) = True Value − Approximate Value (1.1)

Relative True Error

Relative true error is denoted by 𝜖𝑡 and is defined as the ratio between the true error and the true
value.
True Error
Relative True Error (𝜖𝑡 ) = (1.2)
True Value

Example 1.1
The derivative, 𝑓′(𝑥) of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at a particular value of 𝑥 can be approximated by the equation,
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≈ .
ℎ
Find the true error and the relative true error for 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑒 0.5𝑥 at 𝑓′(2) with ℎ = 0.3.

Solution
Before solving for the true error, the approximate value and the true value of the given function must
be calculated first. The approximate value of the function at 𝑓 ′ (2) is
𝑓(2 + 0.3) − 𝑓(2) 𝑓(2.3) − 𝑓(2)
𝑓 ′ (2) ≈ =
0.3 0.3
7𝑒 0.5(2.3) − 7𝑒 0.5(2) 22.107 − 19.028
= = = 10.263
0.3 0.3
The exact value of 𝑓′(2) can be calculated using our knowledge of differential calculus.
𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑒 0.5𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 7 × 0.5 × 𝑒 0.5𝑥 = 3.5𝑒 0.5𝑥
Therefore, the true value of 𝑓′(2) is
𝑓 ′ (2) = 3.5𝑒 0.5(2) = 9.514
The true error is calculated as
𝐸𝑡 = True Value − Approximate Value = 9.514 − 10.263 = −0.749
The relative true error is
True Error −0.749
𝜖𝑡 = = = −0.07873
True Value 9.514
In percentage, the relative true error is
𝜖𝑡 = −0.07873 × 100% = −7.873%
Absolute relative true errors may also need to be calculated,
|𝜖𝑡 | = |−0.07873| = 0.07873 or 7.873%

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Approximate Error
Approximate error is denoted by 𝐸𝑎 and is defined as the difference between the present
approximation and previous approximation.
Approximate Error (𝐸𝑎 ) = Present Approximation − Previous Approximation (1.3)

Relative Approximate Error

Relative approximate error is denoted by 𝜖𝑎 and is defined as the ratio between the approximate error
and the present approximation.
Approximate Error
Relative Approximate Error (𝜖𝑎 ) = (1.4)
Present Approximation

Example 1.2
The derivative, 𝑓′(𝑥) of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at a particular value of 𝑥 can be approximated by the equation,
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≈ .
ℎ
For 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑒 0.5𝑥 at 𝑥 = 2, find the following,
a. 𝑓′(2) using ℎ = 0.3
b. 𝑓′(2) using ℎ = 0.15
c. the approximate error for the value of 𝑓′(2) for part b.
d. the relative approximate error using values from ℎ = 0.3 and ℎ = 0.15.

Solution
a. For 𝑥 = 2 and ℎ = 0.3
𝑓(2 + 0.3) − 𝑓(2) 𝑓(2.3) − 𝑓(2)
𝑓 ′ (2) ≈ =
0.3 0.3
7𝑒 0.5(2.3) − 7𝑒 0.5(2) 22.107 − 19.028
= = = 10.263
0.3 0.3
b. For 𝑥 = 2 and ℎ = 0.15
𝑓(2 + 0.15) − 𝑓(2) 𝑓(2.15) − 𝑓(2)
𝑓 ′ (2) ≈ =
0.15 0.15
7𝑒 0.5(2.15) − 7𝑒 0.5(2) 20.51 − 19.028
= = = 9.880
0.15 0.15
c. So, the approximate error, 𝐸𝑎 , is
𝐸𝑎 = Present Approximation − Previous Approximation
𝐸𝑎 = 9.880 − 10.263 = −0.383
d. The relative approximate error is
Approximate Error
𝜖𝑎 =
Present Approximation
−0.383
𝜖𝑎 = = −0.038765
9.880
as a percentage,
𝜖𝑎 = −0.038765 × 100% = −3.8765%
Absolute relative approximate errors may also need to be calculated,
|𝜖𝑎 | = |−0.038765| = 0.038765 or 3.8765%

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1.4 THE SIGNIFICANT DIGIT
The significant digits or significant figures of a number are those digits that take a meaning that
contributes to its accuracy.
The concept of significant figures is often used in connection with rounding off. Rounding off to
significant figures is a more general-purpose technique than rounding off to 𝑛 decimal places, since
it handles numbers of different scales in a uniform manner.
These are the rules for identifying significant figures when writing the numbers:
1. All non-zero digits are considered significant.
2. Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits are significant.
3. Leading zeros are not significant.
4. Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant.
5. The number 0 has one significant digit.
6. The significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing a decimal point can be indefinite.
Thus, the following conditions are given:
a. A bar may be placed over the last significant figure; any trailing zeros following this
are not significant.
b. The last significant digit of a number may be underlined.
c. A decimal point may be placed after the number.

Note: In the combination of a number and a unit of measurement, we can easily determine the
significant digit by supplying the suitable unit prefix.

Example 1.3
Determine the number of significant digits in following numbers:
a. 2.745
b. 20.003
c. 0.0021
d. 0.002100
e. 20000
f. 0.20100̅00
g. 1.05 × 105
h. 2.0300 × 107

Solution
a. 2.745 has four significant digits: 2, 7, 4, 5
b. 20.003 has five significant digits: 2, 0, 0, 0, 3
c. 0.0021 has two significant digits: 2, 1
d. 0.002100 has four significant digits: 2, 1, 0, 0
e. 20000 has three significant digits: 2, 0, 0
f. 0.20100̅00 has five significant digits: 2, 0, 1, 0, 0
g. 1.05 × 105 has three significant digits: 1, 0, 5
h. 2.0300 × 107 has five significant digits: 2, 0, 3, 0, 0

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1.5 SOURCES OF ERRORS
An error in solving an engineering or science problem can arise due to several factors. First, the error
may be in the modeling technique. A mathematical model may be based on using assumptions that
are not acceptable. Second, an error may arise from mistakes in programs themselves or in the
measurement of physical quantities. But in applications of numerical methods itself, the two errors
we need to focus are round-off error and truncation error.

Round-off Error
Round-off error occurs because digital computers cannot represent some quantities exactly. Its value
can be calculated by deviating the rounded digits and the exact value.
There are two major components of round of error involved in numerical calculations: (1) the
digital computers have size and precision limits in their ability to represent the numbers, and (2)
certain numerical manipulations are highly sensitive to round off errors.

Example 1.4
Find the round-off error of the following if each number is represented using 5 significant digits.
a. 𝑒
b. 2.003458764
c. 2/3

Solution:
a. Since we are just interested in 5 significant digits, 𝑒 = 2.7183.
Round-off Error = 𝑒 − 2.7183 = −0.000018171
b. Round-off Error = 2.003458764 − 2.0035 = −0.000041236
2
c. Round-off Error = − 0.66667 = −0.0000033
3

Truncation Error
Truncation error is caused by truncating a mathematical procedure; that is, replacing an infinite
process by a finite one. Its value can also be calculated by getting the deviation between the exact
value and its approximate value.

Example 1.5
Find 𝑓 ′ (3) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 using the formula below and Δ𝑥 = 0.2.
𝑓(𝑥 + Δ𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≈
Δ𝑥

Solution
Solving for 𝑓 ′ (3) using the formula above, we have
𝑓(3 + 0.2) − 𝑓(3) 𝑓(3.2) − 𝑓(3) 3.22 − 32 10.24 − 9 1.24
𝑓 ′ (3) ≈ = = = = = 6.2
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
The actual value is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥; 𝑓 ′ (3) = 2(3) = 6
The truncation error is then
Truncation Error = 6 − 6.2 = −0.2

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Example 1.6
Solve the truncation error when using two rectangles of equal width to approximate the area under
the curve for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 over the interval [3, 9].
y

90

y = x2
60

30

0 x
0 3 6 9 12

Figure 1.2 Plot of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 showing the approximate area under the curve from 𝑥 = 3 to
𝑥 = 9 using two rectangles

Solution
Solving for the exact value of the area under the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 over the interval [3, 9],
9 9
𝑥3 93 − 33
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =[ ] =[ ] = 234
3 3 3
3
The approximate value of the integral using two rectangles is
9

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 2 )|𝑥=3 (6 − 3) + (𝑥 2 )|𝑥=6 (9 − 6)
3
= (32 )3 + (62 )3 = 27 + 108 = 135
The truncation error is then
Truncation Error = 234 − 135 = 99

1.6 TAYLOR SERIES

The use of Taylor series exists in so many aspects of numerical methods that it is imperative to devote
a separate lesson to its review and applications. For example, you must have come across
expressions such as
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − + ⋯ (1.5)
2! 4! 6!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯ (1.6)
3! 5! 7!
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + +⋯ (1.7)
2! 3!
All the above expressions are actually a special case of Taylor series called the Maclaurin series.
Why are these applications of Taylor’s theorem important for numerical methods? Expressions such
as given in Equations (1.5), (1.6) and (1.7) give you a way to find the approximate values of these
functions by using the basic arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication.

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Example 1.7
Find the value of 𝑒 0.25 using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series.

Solution
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑒𝑥≈ 1+𝑥+ + +
2! 3! 4!
0.252 0.253 0.254
≈ 1 + 0.25 + + + = 1.2840
2! 3! 4!
The exact value of 𝑒 0.25 up to 5 significant digits is also 1.2840.

But the above discussion and example do not answer our question of what a Taylor series is.
Here it is, for a function 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) 2 𝑓′′′(𝑥) 3
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)ℎ + ℎ + ℎ +⋯ (1.4)
2! 3!
provided all derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) exist and are continuous between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + ℎ.
What does this mean in plain English? As Archimedes would have said, “Give me the value of
the function at a single point, and the value of all (first, second, and so on) its derivatives, and I can
give you the value of the function at any other point”.
It is very important to note that the Taylor series is not asking for the expression of the function
and its derivatives, just the value of the function and its derivatives at a single point.
Yes, all the derivatives have to exist and be continuous between 𝑥 (the point where you are) to
the point, 𝑥 + ℎ where you are wanting to calculate the function at. However, if you want to calculate
the function approximately by using the nth order Taylor polynomial, then 1st, 2nd, …, nth derivatives
need to exist and be continuous in the closed interval [𝑥, 𝑥 + ℎ], while the (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ derivative needs
to exist and be continuous in the open interval (𝑥, 𝑥 + ℎ).

Example 1.8
Derive the Maclaurin series of
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!

Solution
Maclaurin series is simply a Taylor series for the point 𝑥 = 0.
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓(0) = 0 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1 𝑓 ′′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′′ (0) = 0
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0 𝑓 ′′′′′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′′′ (0) = 1
Using the Taylor series now,
ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4 ℎ5
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)ℎ + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3 4 5
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑓(0 + ℎ) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)ℎ + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′′′ (0) + ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3 4 5
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)ℎ + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′′′ (0) + ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3 4 5 3 5
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
= 0 + 1(ℎ) − 0 − 1 + 0 + 1 + ⋯ = ℎ − + + ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5! 3! 5!

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So
𝑥3 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − + −⋯
3! 5!
𝑥3 𝑥5
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯
3! 5!

Example 1.9
Find the value of 𝑓(6) given that 𝑓(4) = 125, 𝑓 ′ (4) = 74, 𝑓 ′′ (4) = 30, 𝑓 ′′′ (4) = 6 and all other higher
derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 4 are zero.

Solution
ℎ2 ℎ3
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)ℎ + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥=4
ℎ =6−4 =2
Since fourth and higher derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) are zero at 𝑥 = 4.
22 23
𝑓(4 + 2) = 𝑓(4) + 𝑓 ′ (4)(2) + 𝑓 ′′ (4) + 𝑓 ′′′ (4)
2! 3!
22 23
𝑓(6) = 125 + 74(2) + 30 ( ) + 6 ( )
2! 3!
𝑓(6) = 125 + 148 + 60 + 8
𝑓(6) = 341

Example 1.10
The Taylor series for 𝑒 𝑥 at point 𝑥 = 0 is given by
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + + +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
What is the truncation (true) error in the representation of 𝑒 1 if only four terms of the series are used?

Solution
If only four terms of the series are used, then
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 + +
2! 3!
1 2 13
𝑒𝑥 ≈ 1 + 1 + +
2! 3!
𝑒 𝑥 = 2.66667
The truncation (true) error would be the unused terms of the Taylor series, which then are
𝑥4 𝑥5
𝐸𝑡 = + +⋯
4! 5!
14 15
= + +⋯
4! 5!
𝐸𝑡 ≅ 0.0516152

Math 23 – Advanced Mathematics Engr. Michael Ernie F. Rodriguez | Page 11

EXERCISE SETS

Exercise Set 1.1

Find the (a) true error, (b) relative true error, (c) absolute relative true error of the following:
1. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1 at 𝑥 = 0.5 when ℎ = 0.005.
2. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 3)3 at 𝑥 = 3 when ℎ = 0.01.
3. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2−𝑥 at 𝑥 = 3 when ℎ = 0.025.
4. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 3 when ℎ = 0.002.
5. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin−1 (𝑥 − 1) at 𝑥 = 1.5 when ℎ = 0.0001.

Exercise Set 1.2

Find the (a) approximate error, (b) relative approximate error, (c) absolute relative error of the
following:
1. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1 at 𝑥 = 0.5 when ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.005 and ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 0.05.
2. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 3)3 at 𝑥 = 3 when ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.001 and ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 0.01.
3. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2−𝑥 at 𝑥 = 3 when ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.005 and ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 0.025.
4. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 3 when ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.001 and ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 0.002.
5. The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin−1 (𝑥 − 1) at 𝑥 = 1.5 when ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.0001 and ℎ𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 0.001.

Exercise Set 1.3

Determine the number of significant digit/s in the following numbers:
1. 0.0000023000
2. 1.00 × 1010
3. 3.000000
4. 4.25 × 10−4
5. 1.0500000

Exercise Set 1.4

Find the round-off error of the following using 5 significant digits:
1
1.
3
2. tan 15°
3. 1 − 𝜋
3
4. √115
5. ln 12

Exercise Set 1.5

Find the truncation error of the following Maclaurin series given that it is truncated into 3 terms:
1. sin 𝑥
2. cosh 𝑥
3. ln(1 + 𝑥)
4. tan−1 𝑥
1
5.
1−𝑥

Math 23 – Advanced Mathematics Engr. Michael Ernie F. Rodriguez | Page 12

ANSWER KEY

Exercise Set 1.1

1. 𝐸𝑡 = −0.007525, 𝜖𝑡 = −0.002736, |𝜖𝑡 | = 0.002736
2. 𝐸𝑡 = −17.34494, 𝜖𝑡 = −0.00669, |𝜖𝑡 | = 0.00669
3. 𝐸𝑡 = −0.000746, 𝜖𝑡 = 0.00861, |𝜖𝑡 | = 0.00861
4. 𝐸𝑡 = 0.00011, 𝜖𝑡 = 0.00033, |𝜖𝑡 | = 0.00033
5. 𝐸𝑡 = −0.00004, 𝜖𝑡 = −0.00003, |𝜖𝑡 | = 0.00003

Exercise Set 1.2

1. 𝐸𝑎 = −0.069975, 𝜖𝑎 = −0.025376, |𝜖𝑎 | = 0.025376
2. 𝐸𝑎 = −15.61629, 𝜖𝑎 = −0.00602, |𝜖𝑎 | = 0.00602
3. 𝐸𝑎 = −0.000596, 𝜖𝑎 = 0.006891, |𝜖𝑎 | = 0.006891
4. 𝐸𝑎 = 0.00006, 𝜖𝑎 = 0.00018, |𝜖𝑎 | = 0.00018
5. 𝐸𝑎 = −0.00035, 𝜖𝑎 = −0.0003, |𝜖𝑎 | = 0.0003

Exercise Set 1.3 Exercise Set 1.4

1. 5 significant digits 1. 0.0000033
2. 3 significant digits 2. −0.00000080757
3. 4 significant digits 3. 0.0000073464
4. 3 significant digits 4. 0.000044131
5. 4 significant digits 5. 0.0000066498

Exercise Set 1.5

𝑥7 𝑥9
1. − + +⋯
7! 9!
𝑥6 𝑥8
2. + +⋯
6! 8!
𝑥4 𝑥5
3. − + +⋯
4 5
𝑥7 𝑥9
4. − + +⋯
7 9
5. 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + ⋯

REFERENCES
1. Cabero, J. B., Acula, D. D. (2013). Numerical Methods. Anvil Publishing, Inc.
2. Chapra, S. C., Canale, R. P. (2015). Numerical Methods for Engineers (7th ed.). The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
3. Chapra, S. C. (2018). Applied Numerical Methods with MATLAB® for Engineers and Scientists
(4th ed.). The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
4. Kaw, A. (n.d.). Hollistic Numerical Methods: Transforming Numerical Methods Education for the
STEM Undergraduate. Retrieved from http://mathforcollege.com

Math 23 – Advanced Mathematics Engr. Michael Ernie F. Rodriguez | Page 13