Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 407438

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Ecient use of energy by utilizing gas turbine combined systems

Yousef S.H. Najjar
Mechanical Engineering Department, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, P.O. Box 9027, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Received 17 June 1999; accepted 13 February 2000

Abstract The gas turbine engine is characterized by its relatively low capital cost compared with steam power plants. It has environmental advantages and short construction lead time. However, conventional industrial engines have lower eciencies especially at part load. One of the technologies adopted nowadays for improvement is the ``combined cycle''. Hence, it is expected that the combined cycle continues to gain acceptance throughout the world as a reliable, exible and ecient base load power generation plant. In this article, 12 research investigations, carried out by the author and associates during the last 10 years are briey reviewed. These cover 12 gas turbine systems which would contribute towards ecient use of energy. They entail fundamental studies in addition to applications of combined systems in industry including: the closed gas turbine cycle; the organic Rankine cycle; repowering; integrated power and refrigeration; cryogenic power; liqueed natural gas (LNG) gasication; and inlet air cooling. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gas turbines; Combined cycles; Energy utilization; Conservation

1. Introduction The gas turbine is known to feature low capital cost, high exibility, high reliability without complexity [1], short delivery time, early commissioning and commercial operation, and fast starting and loading. The gas turbine is further recognized for its better environmental performance manifested in the curbing of air pollution and reducing the greenhouse eect.
E-mail address: y_najjar@hotmail.com (Y.S.H. Najjar). 1359-4311/01/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 4 3 1 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 3 3 - 8

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Open-cycle gas turbine engines exhaust higher-grade heat to the atmosphere than steam turbines reject to their condensers. The combined cycle uses the exhaust heat from the gas turbine engine to increase the power plant output and boost the overall eciency to more than 55% [2,3], substantially above that of the simple cycle and even higher than that of supercritical-pressure reheat steam power plants. In places where high fuel costs prevail, this can yield outstanding rates of return [4]. Gas turbines are increasingly used in combination with steam cycle, either to generate electricity alone, as in combined cycles, or to cogenerate both electrical power and heat for industrial processes or district heating [5]. Natural gas-red combustion turbines and combined-cycle plants are forecast to capture over 47% of the international and 80% of the U.S. new-generation market in the next decade. These combined cycle power plants generate electric power at lower costs than conventional steam plants of the same rating [6]. Short lead-time gas turbine enables utilities to meet unexpected load growth at low cost, because combined cycles can be built in small increments [7]. Since combined cycles use only well proven equipment, their operating reliability, availability, and maintainability (RAM) are very good. By the year 2000, the worldwide capacity of combined cycles used by utilities is expected to reach about 45,000 MW [4,8]. At the same time, a substantial fraction of the electricity produced by independent power producers will be generated by combined cycle [9]. The dual advantages of eciency and exibility make gas turbine based cycles the dominant energy converters for the production of world's electricity today and in the foreseeable future. GE estimates that industry orders for all kinds of power generation within the next decade will total to 1027 gigawatts: 26% for combined cycles; 10% for simple-cycle combustion turbines; 37% for steam; 6% for nuclear; 17% for hydropower; and 4% for renewables [10]. However, currently gas turbine systems account for over 50% of the new capacity installed [11].

2. System analysis 2.1. Achieving higher thermal eciency High eciency is expected to be one of the main design goals of the rapidly growing world market. Worldwide electric power consumption is expected to grow by 60% between now and the year 2010 [12]. The rising importance of eciency will manifest itself by the rising share for combined-cycle plants in the fossil-red power plants. The main factors which help achieving higher eciency are mainly: . . . . . . intercooling increased gas turbine inlet temperature advanced gas turbine cooling techniques blade coating reduced auxiliary power consumption hydrogen cooled generators

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. multiple-pressure steam cycle with reheat . better heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG) design . fuel preheating Some of these factors are included in Fig. 1 [13]. Fig. 2 shows the energy balance diagram for a typical combined system with Zth 577, by Siemens in Seabank power station [14]. ABB has introduced the GT24 and GT26 with outputs of 165 and 240 MWe, respectively, in combined-cycle systems in New Jersey. The combined cycle eciencies are in excess of 58% [15]. Table 1 shows performance data for the 2000 MW Poryong power station in South Korea. Using a triple pressure steam cycle, a 59% thermal eciency is achieved [16]. Fig. 3 shows the development of the eciency over the past 15 years, where a 60% is considered the economic eciency obtainable with triple-pressure system. This is equivalent to approximately 82% of the theoretical cycle eciency [12]. Siemens considers that 60% thermal eciency is the economic limit for combined-cycle generating plants [12], i.e., the economic values of gains above that level are not high enough to cover the cost of getting there. Fig. 4 shows the continuous increase in eciency over the last 40 years for large combustion turbines and combined cycle plants, starting with 40% for aero-derivative simple cycle up to more than 60% for ICADHAT (intercooled-aeroderivative and humidied advanced turbine) cycles and H-class General Electric combined cycles [17]. The advanced turbine systems program (ATS), run by the Department of Energy in the U.S. will oer even more ecient plants, as shown in Table 2. The eciencies will be higher than 60% with a turbine inlet temperature of about 15008C, using engines as large as 400 MW [18]. Heat recovery steam generators are moving into the realm of supercritical steam conditions, using the high pressure once-through mode (Fig. 5), leading to a more compact design and a lower cost; and reaching the 60% thermal eciency [19].

Fig. 1. pathway to high eciency.

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Fig. 2. Sankey energy-balance diagram for typical combined system.

2.2. Relative merits of combined gas turbine systems Conversion of simple-cycle gas turbines into combined cycle plants oers clear-cut economic benets. The combined cycle is characterized by its proven technology, the potentiality of phasing of construction, and the possibility of repowering in both directions. However, these combined cycles, which have high full-load eciency and lower capital cost, have some disadvantages. These are: relatively poorer part-load eciency; and derating at higher ambient temperature and low ambient pressure. As an alternative to the introduction of combined systems, steam can be produced from waste-heat in the exhaust, and injected into the air delivered by the compressor or into the
Table 1 Poryong performance data (site ambient temperature 158C) CT type Plant conguration Total output (MW) Power output GTs (MW) Power output STs (MW) Eciency (%) Combustor Frequency (Hz) NOx emissions (vppmd) Total number of starts Total operating hours CT24 4 KA24-2 2021 8 163 4 182 59 Sequential annular combustor 60 < 50 (at 15% O2) 242 1720

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Fig. 3. Eciencies in the past 15 years.

combustor, thus increasing the electrical output of the gas turbine [20]. Referred to as the STIG, this system is gaining acceptance especially for aero-derivative gas turbine engines [21,22]. In comparison with STIG, the combined cycle has relatively higher eciency, lower capital cost with large capacities and wider surge margins. Conversely, STIG has complete modularity, which provides improved exibility in part-load operation. STIG also features lower NOx emissions, less water requirements for steam

Fig. 4. Eciencies of large combustion turbine and combined-cycle plants.

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Table 2 ATS performance characteristics Cycle conguration Industrial ATS Allison Simple System size (MW) Rolor inlet temp. (8C) Pressure ratio NOx (ppmv) Eciency (%, LHV) 13 1315 30:1 9 41 Solar Recuperated 5 1093 9:1 9 43 Utility ATS General Electric Combined, closed loop cooling 400 1426 23:1 9 > 60 Westinghouse Combined, closed loop cooling 420 1510 29:1 9 > 60

injection, and starts faster from cold [23]. Due to the fewer pieces of equipment needed, it entertains lower capital cost and higher reliability. It also has higher peak load capability [24]. Comparing the relative merits of the two systems, actual tendency is towards more expansion in combined-cycle power plants, which use well-proven equipment for both gas and steam turbosets. 2.3. Repowering with combined cycles The combined-cycle plant is a promising mode of energy recovery and conservation, and is an economically interesting proposition. Conversion of simple-cycle gas turbine facilities into combined-cycle plants oers clear-cut benets whenever rising power demands must be met [25,26]. These benets include dramatic improvements in eciency at all loads, and improved operating reliability with relatively low-cost additions to existing power facilities. One of the options open to many utilities with existing steam units is repowering, which involves the installation of gas turbines and heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) to convert

Fig. 5. Comparison of subcritical and supercritical heat exchangers. Above 220 bar, there is no sudden phase change between water and steam.

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the steam plant into combined-cycle operation [27]. One obvious incentive for repowering over new construction is the savings in capital investment. These are derived mainly from the use of existing equipment and structures, the use of owned land, existing transmission capacity, and the sharing of infrastructure with other units. Other important advantages are lower operation and maintenance costs resulting from the sharing of existing support facilities and sta, shorter and less complicated relicensing by designing within the stations' existing thermal discharge permits and intake structures [28]. There are also some disadvantages to repowering, however, such as added complexity that can result when matching old equipment with modern high-eciency equipment. Furthermore, there is a potential for an increase in the frequency of maintenance of refurbished equipment [28]. Retrotting existing steam turbine power plants with a gas turbine topping cycle can, in general, greatly enhance their eciency to levels comparable with those of plants originally constructed as fully-red combined cycles [29]. Economic analyses reveal that signicant fuel savings justify the capital investment [29,30]. Necessary modications for repowering include modications in the furnace evaporator (radiation section). Boiler repowering is the most dicult match because performance of the conversion is strongly dependent on the type of the boiler and air supply. Unless there is a good match between gas turbine exhaust conditions and boiler ow, the economics can be marginal [31]. Pollution levels should drop with removal of inecient boilers. Pressurized uidized bed combustor (PFBC) plants combine the advantages of uidized bed, such as fuel exibility and reduced emissions, with the higher eciency of combined-cycle plants. Furthermore, they can be built in smaller volumes due to their compact nature. Pressurization increases the amount of air and coal that can be supplied to the uidized bed, at similar uidizing velocities. A higher bed level can be used, which increases contact time between solid and gases, which in turn leads to a higher combustion eciency [32]. In addition, very ecient desulphurization is achieved within the uidized bed, where dolomite or limestone functions as a sulphur sorbent. Nitrogen oxide formation is also low due to the modest bed temperature of 8508808C. In one such application, where a gas turbine was used to repower an existing coal-red plant, a net plant output of 81 MW was achieved at 41.5% eciency [32,33]. 2.4. Recent advances with combined cycles During the last decade, the need was felt to develop a new generation of plants that can operate with improved eciencies and availabilities, accept lower-quality fuels, be low in capital costs, and have short design and construction lead times [34]. On a worldwide basis, reserves of oil are dwarfed by the massive reverses of coal, with lifetimes, at the present rates of combustion, measured in hundreds of years [35]. Hence, the challenge was to convert the energy contained in coal into a more convenient form in an ecient, economical and environmentally acceptable manner. The coal gasication process was proposed to achieve these goals, in an eort to convert coal to a low- or medium-heating-value gas for utility and industrial use [3639]. The converted fuel could be methanol to fuel peaking gas turbines [40]. Because the enthalpy of combustion of the fuel gas is only about 1/8 of that of natural gas, the gas turbine combustor

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needs to be modied to burn the low-heating-value gas [41]. The high eciency of the integrated gasication combined cycle (IGCC) is realized by extending the working temperature range of steam power plant. The present range is between 338C, as set by the condenser, and about 5608C, as set by the economic selection of materials for the boilers and turbines. The extended range becomes 3312008C, resulting in a potential eciency of 55% [42]. 2.5. Some methods of improving combined-cycle performance The main categories of combined cycles may be classied by (a) the rate of excess air utilized, (b) the number of steam pressure levels used in heat recovery [43], (c) the availability of supplemental ring and (d) the use of steam reheat [1]. A novel heat-recovery process for improving the thermal eciency of a gas turbine in electric power generation was suggested by Higdon and associates [44]. The process uses an air saturation unit to evaporate heated water (below its boiling point) into the combustion air. The resultant mass ow of water vapor through the rest of the system reduces the power required to compress air and permits better utilization of the otherwise wasted heat. The authors calculated the eciency of the system to be 54.8%, as compared to 47.9% for an intercooled, steam-injected system. A chemically recuperated gas turbine was suggested [40] for recovering the waste exhaust heat from gas turbines by employing a methane-steam reformer (MSR) instead of using an HRSG. The MSR reforms natural gas into hydrogen and other gases to fuel the turbine, and promises low emission levels. With intercooling and reheat, a modied CF6-80C2 aircraft engine is predicted to provide 60% eciency. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) emerged as an innovative method of meeting peakdemand requirements of electric utilities. Excess power produced during low-load periods is utilized to compress air and store it; the stored energy then returned to the system during peak-load periods [45]. An ice storage system (ICS), similar in concept to CAES, was selected for peaking stations [46]. The ICS was used for precooling of suction air during high-cost peaking situations via ice made by low-cost o-peak electric power. Optimum pressure ratio and peak temperature were found to vary signicantly with the types of cooling technology employed. Using steam rather than air for rotor cooling was found to improve the results. Gyarmathy [47] studied the relative merits of various load control methods involving xed and variable-geometry gas turbine compressors. The results implied exceptional merits for compressor guide vane adjustment, serving to maintain gas turbine exhaust temperature at high levels during part-load operation. 3. Discussion of some relevant research studies This paper is not intended to review the vast literature on research, development and projects related to gas turbine combined cycle. It focuses on summarizing several research investigations carried out by the author and associates, during the last ten years, in the eld of

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gas turbine combined system. The studies are divided into fundamental studies, combined systems and inlet-air cooling. 3.1. Fundamental studies 3.1.1. Comparison of modeling and simulation results for single and twin-shaft gas turbine engines [49] There is now a major emerging market for twin-shaft engines based on aeroderivative gas turbines. In this work, performance analysis is carried out at design and part load conditions for single and twin-shaft engines (Figs. 6 and 7). After choosing typical characteristic running lines; operating variables such as air mass ow, turbine inlet temperature, and exhaust temperature, in addition to performance parameters such as power (P ), eciency Zgt ), and specic fuel consumption (SFC), were evaluated and plotted against compressor pressure ratio rc ). A computer program was specially designed for such calculations. The results showed superior performance of the twin-shaft engine. At part load rc 8), the percentages of performance parameters relative to their values at design rc 10), are shown in Table 3 as follows: when thermodynamic properties were assumed constant with temperature, P = 19 and 67%; Zgt 60 and 91%; and SFC = 169 and 110% for single and twin-shaft engines, respectively. However, with variable properties, the corresponding percentage of performance parameters are P = 20 and 57%, Zgt 66 and 88%, and SFC = 151 and 114%. These results are shown in Figs. 811 and Tables 3 and 4. 3.1.2. Optimum performance of a simple gas turbine engine used as a source of compressed air [50] A simple gas turbine unit is used as a source of compressed air (Fig. 12). The turbine produces just enough work to drive the compressor. The part-load performance of the cycle is analyzed to estimate the equilibrium running line on the compressor characteristics for dierent operating conditions of pressure ratio, maximum cycle temperature and the amount of air bled o (Figs. 13 and 14). Specic fuel-air consumption is also determined as the quantity of fuel consumed to produce 1 kg/s of bled air (Fig. 15). Performance calculations show that the maximum cycle temperature is relatively the most inuential parameter. Hence, operation along an isothermal equilibrium line gives the best performance.

Fig. 6. Schematic drawing for a single-shaft gas turbine engine.

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Fig. 7. Schematic drawing for a twin-shaft gas turbine engine.

3.1.3. Comparative performance of closed-cycle gas turbine engine with heat recovery using dierent gases [51] The unique features of the closed-cycle gas turbine engine (Fig. 16) have been recently contributing towards its adoption in a multiplicity of applications such as power plants, space, and marine power supplies. Therefore, research is reactivated to serve its furture developments. In this study, a performance analysis is carried out using dierent gases such as Helium, combustion gases, air, and CO2. Operating variables are turbine inlet temperature T03, compressor pressure ratio Rc and inlet temperature T01. A computer program is tailored to calculate specic work WS and overall eciency Zo over a wide range of operating variables (Figs. 17 and 18). Results show that Helium gives relatively higher Ws, but Zo starts to drop early after a low optimum Rc. Air and combustion gases oer nearly equal performance. 3.2. Combined systems 3.2.1. Performance analysis of gas turbine air-bottoming combined system [52] The gas turbine engine has low capital cost compared with steam power plants. It has environmental advantages and short construction lead time. However, conventional industrial engines have lower eciencies. One of the technologies adopted nowadays for improvement is the utilization of combined cycles. In this study, an air-bottoming cycle (Fig. 19), instead of a steam cycle is suggested and analyzed. Besides reducing the cost of hardware of the installation, the system could achieve a thermal eciency of about 49%, which does not deteriorate at part load as it happens with the basic gas turbine engine. Parametric analysis of the system was performed using a specially designed computer program, enabling variation of the main independent variables, namely Rc, T03 and rc over
Table 3 Performance at D.P Wn (kJ/kg) Single shaft Twin shaft 343.6 333.74 Zgt (%) 35 33.8 Power (mW) 20 19.43 SFC (kg/kWh) 0.243 0.250

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Fig. 8. Variation of mass ow rate of hot gases with compressor pressure ratio.

wide ranges, taking into account the losses in dierent components and variable thermodynamic properties. (Figs. 2022). Results show that a gain of 30% in power and 30.5% in eciency is possible when using the combined system relative to the basic gas turbine engine (Table 5). 3.2.2. Cogeneration by combining gas turbine engine with organic rankine cycle [53] The gas turbine engine is known by its relatively low eciency, especially at part load. Therefore, to conserve energy and reduce the operating cost, waste heat is recovered by

Fig. 9. Variation of fuel mass ow rate with compressor pressure ratio.

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Fig. 10. Variation of percentage of power output with compressor pressure ratio.

combining a heat-exchange gas turbine cycle with a closed organic Rankine cycle (ORC) (Fig. 23). A computer program was made to calculate the individual and combined cycle performances, namely the work and eciency of each. The variables considered were: gas turbine pressure ratio R1; maximum cycle temperature T6; uid-air mass ratio FAR; and type of working uid for the ORC. This analytical study shows that R22 gives the highest improvement in work and eciency (Table 6) but among these uids, R113 is the optimum choice because it gives the smallest, hence the most economic size of turbo-expander due to its higher relative molecular mass.

Fig. 11. Variation of gas turbine eciency with compressor pressure ratio.

Y.S.H. Najjar / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 407438 Table 4 O-design performance Arrangement Single shaft Twin shaft Single shaft Twin shaft Properties Constant Constant Variable Variable Power (%) 19 67 20 57 Eciency (%) 60 91 66 88

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SFC (%) 169 110 151 114

Fig. 12. Schematic drawing of the compressed air facility.

Fig. 13. Variation of quantity of air bled o, mb , with compressor pressure ratio, rc and maximum cycle temperature ratio, t, as a parameter.

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Fig. 14. Relative eects of the dimensionless parameters rc and t on mb X

Fig. 15. Relative eects of the dimensionless parameters rc and t on sfac.

Table 5 Performance of the gas turbine engine, air-bottoming cycle and the combined system at the design point of Rc = 10, T03 = 1400 K and rc = 2 W (kJ/kg) Simple gas turbine engine Air-bottoming cycle Combined system 371.6 112.5 484.1 Z (%) 37.4 27.9 48.8 SFC (kg/kWh) 0.2262 0.3039 0.1736

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Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the closed-gas turbine cycle.

Fig. 17. Variation of W1 vs. Rc with gas as a parameter.

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Fig. 18. Variation of Zo vs. Rc with gas as a parameter.

Fig. 19. Schematic diagram of an air-bottoming combined system.

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Fig. 20. Variation of W and SFC improvement with T03.

Fig. 21. Variation of W and SFC improvement with Rc.

Table 6 Performance of heat-exchange gas turbine cycle and combined cycle with dierent working uids at design conditions (R1 = 3, FAR = 1, T6 = 1100 K), WHEC = 146.15 kJ kg1, ZHEC 29X317 a Working uid R12 R22 R113 R114 E. CC (%) 43.72 45.20 41.16 41.07 E. improvement (%) 49.16 54.21 40.43 40.12 Work CC (kJ kg1) a 233.8 241.74 220.15 219.6 Work improvement (%) 60.00 65.41 50.63 50.26

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Fig. 22. Variation of W and SFC improvement with rc.

Maximum cycle temperature, and pressure ratio are relatively the most important parameters. Economic analysis indicates very good rate of return on investment, with a payback period of three years for the combined system 3.2.3. Repowering a steam power plant by means of a uidized-bed combustion and a two-shaft gas turbine [54] Utilities have been adopting repowering as an option in their plans to meet the growth in loading. In this work, repowering of older and marginally ecient steam plant by conversion to combined-cycle operation is carried out by the addition of a twin-shaft gas turbine engine

Fig. 23. Schematic drawing for the combined cycle (CC) comprising heat-exchange gas turbine cycle (HEC) and organic Rankine cycle (ORC).

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and replacing the boiler by a pressurised uidized-bed combustor (PFBC) (Fig. 24). The lowpressure compressor rotates at variable speed to provide the PFBC with the required mass of air to satisfy various load conditions. A computer program was designed for computations of performance. Four arrangements were studied, namely the basic System 1 with a heat exchanger interposed between the gas turbine and the PFBC, in addition to circulating the condensate of the steam plant through the gas turbine intercooler; System 2 circulates direct cold water; System 3 cancels the heat exchanger; System 4 cancels the heat exchanger and raises the turbine inlet temperature to 12508C to anticipate the future performance of advanced systems (Tables 79). Results show that System 2 achieves marginal improvement, whereas System 3 achieves 7.3% higher power and 4% higher eciency relative to System 1, while System 4 achieves 33.4 and 13.2%, respectively. 3.2.4. A gas turbine integrated with a combined power and refrigeration closed system [55] Closed-cycle gas turbines (CCGT) have numerous advantages, among which are the exibility of utilizing waste heat at low and high temperatures, the possibility of using a variety of fuels, the ability to use high pressures and thereby reduce the cost of turbo machines, and controlling the part-load output eciently by varying the gas pressure and mass, rather than the turbine inlet temperature. In this study, the waste energy in the exhaust gas of 1 MW gas turbine engine is partly recovered in a heat exchanger, to heat Helium which drives the turbinecompressor system in two closed cycles (Fig. 25). Fig. 26 shows the TS diagram for the cycle. The hot cycle produces power, whereas the cold cycle provides a refrigerating eect to liquefy nitrogen at a rate of about 1300 ton/day. A parametric study using a specially designed computer program, to simulate running conditions over a wide range, shows that such a system could produce the cooling eect with an overall eciency of about 60% at a compressor pressure ratio of 2.5 (Fig. 27).

Fig. 24. The PFBC combined system.

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Table 7 Comparison of performance results and their percentage changes at design point for the dierent systems, relative to System 1 Pgt, (MW) System 1 System 2 change % System 3 change % System 4 change % 23.9 24.3 1.7 30.5 27.6 54.1 126 Pst, (MW) 66.4 65 2.1 66.4 0 66.4 0 Pcc, (MW) 90.3 89.3 1.1 96.9 7.3 120.5 33.4 Zgt , (%) 36.4 35.8 1.6 42.5 16.8 52 42.9 Zst , (%) 43.8 42.9 2 43.8 0 43.8 0 Zcc , (%) 41.6 40.7 2.2 43.3 4 47.1 13.2 sfccc (kg kWh1) 0.347 0.354 2 0.332 4.3 0.306 11.8

3.2.5. Cryogenic power conversion with regasication of LNG in a gas turbine plant [56] The gas turbine combined cycle continues to gain acceptance throughout the world as a reliable, exible and ecient baseload generation plant, particularly where natural gas is available. In this work, a cryogenic circuit is combined with a gas turbine power plant burning LNG (Fig. 28). A computer program is devised to calculate performance, namely, power and overall eciency for the combined system over a wide range of operating variables Rc and T3. In Table 8, the performance of the combined system relative to the basic gas turbine engine at design conditions is given. Thermoeconomic evaluation of a 2000 MWe gas turbine power plant shows that addition of a cryogenic circuit may save about 6259 ton/year of LNG and 39 MW of power (Table 9). The payback period is less than 1.5 year (Table 9). 3.2.6. Combined gas turbine engine with water desalination system [57] The daily load schedule of a power plant is aected by the type of activities which may vary between day and night as in industry; and from summer to winter as in the air conditioning load in tropical regions. Hence, load management may play an important
Table 8 Performance of the gas turbine engine combined with cryogenic circuit at design point Performance parameter Gas turbine power (kW/kga) Gas turbine eciency (%) Power increment (points) (kW) LNG circuit (kW) propane circuit (kW) Z0 increment (points) Increase in power (%) Increase in Zov (%) Fuel consumption (kgf /kga) sfc (kgf /kWh) mp (kg/s) Values 294.04 33.89 5.728 3.568 2.16 0.66 1.95 1.95 0.0187 0.2289 0.032

Y.S.H. Najjar / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 407438 Table 9 Saving in fuel and power over a year for a 2000 MWe gas turbine power plant Saving Air consumption (kg/s) Fuel consumption (kg/s) Fuel consumption for equivalent gas turbine plant (kg/s) Mass of fuel saved (kg/s) Mass of fuel saved (tons LNG/yr) (kl oil/yr) Saved power (MW)

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Values 6801.80 127.19 129.67 2.48 62,595.20 87,633.25 39.00

role in improving the load and capacity factors by increasing the average daily load and reducing the dierence between the peak and the valleys. This may lead to improvement in overall performance. This study is concerned with a power generation system where steam and gas turbine power plants are interconnected through electrical network. It is known that, at part load, gas turbine eciency decreases sharply in comparison with

Fig. 25. The combined power and refrigeration system.

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Fig. 26. Temperature entropy diagram for combined power and refrigeration system.

Fig. 27. Variation of non-dimensional performance parameters with non-dimensional pressure ratio.

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Fig. 28. Schematic diagram of the combined gas turbine engine and the cryogenic system.

steam turbine, which remains nearly unaected. Hence, if the spinning reserve and capability reserve are obtained from stream units, the gas turbine stays running at full load most of the time. The excess power could be used to run vapour compression desalination system VCS, and the exhaust energy could be utilized in HRSG to produce distilled water from a multi-stage ash desalination plant (MSF) (Fig. 29). Performance analysis shows that this integrated system could save as much as 66% in fuel consumption and produce about 4.75 million m3/year distilled water (Table 10). Thermoeconomic analysis shows that the additional investment could be paid back within 3.3 years (Table 11).

Table 10 Overall improvement in the integrated system performance when connected with VCS and MSF Season High Low Pac (MW) 19.31 19.31 Improvement (%) 19.2 102.8 Zo (%) 48.7 48.7 Improvement (%) 74.87 198 sfco (kg/kWh) 0.1739 0.1739 Improvement (%) 42.8 66.43

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Fig. 29. Schematic drawing for a single shaft engine cogeneration integrated with a multi-stage ashing and vapour compression distillation systems.

3.3. Inlet air cooling 3.3.1. Enhancement of performance of gas turbine engines by inlet air cooling and cogeneration system [58] It is known that the eciency of the gas turbine engine is relatively low at design point and it deteriorates further at part load and o-design high ambient temperatures. Therefore, this work comprises the study of adding an inlet air precooler connected to the evaporator of an aqua-ammonia absorption chiller which is driven by the tail-end heat recovered from the engine exhaust gases (Fig. 30). A heat recovery boiler is used to partly recover the exhaust heat before entering the generator of the chiller.
Table 11 Thermoeconomic evaluation of systems B and C relative to A Item $ millions Engine with VCS Additional capital cost investment Annual savings Fuel Water Subtotal Annual costs Fixed charges, 12% Operation and maintenance, 3% Power cost Subtotal Net savings Payback period, year 12.336 3.535 4.626 8.161 1.4803 0.37008 2.609 4.46 3.701 3.333 Engine with MSF 20.04 8.0126 2.505 10.518 2.4048 0.6016 0.7439 3.75 6.768 2.96

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Fig. 30. Schematic drawing of the combined system with precooling.

The performance of this combined system, namely power, eciency Z and specic fuel consumption (SFC ) is studied and compared with simple cycle. The variables in this parametric study are mainly compressor pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature (T03) and ambient temperature (Ta). Results show that the combined system achieves gains in power, Zov and SFCov of about 21.5, 38 and 27.7% (Table 12). The performance of the combined system shows less sensitivity to variations in operating variables. Thermoeconomic evaluation shows that the combined system is viable with a payback period of 3.7 years (Table 13).

Table 12 Comparison of performance at the design point Performance Power (MW) sfc (kg/kWh) Eth sfcov [kg/kWh] Eth.ow Without cooling 50 0.2419 0.35 With cooling 60.7497 0.2385 0.3549 0.1749 0.484 Percentage improvement 21.4994 1.4055 1.4000 27.7 38.28

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Table 13 Results of economic evaluation of the cogeneration system per 1 kg/s of engine air ow Items Investment-added cost Absorption (M/c) Suction air-cooler Heat-recovery boiler HRB Investment subtotal Engineering and sundries (10%) Saving by phasing out new engine Net investment Running cost ($/year) Added fuel cost Saving in electricity Saving in steam Net annual saving ($) Payback period (years) Cost ($) 28158 5000 70156 103314 +10331 14110 99536 5711 +12360 +20088 26737 3.7

3.3.2. Performance of a heat-pipe based waste-heat recovery and utilization system for a gasturbine engine [59] The results of a modeling and simulation study on the combined performance of a combined power system are presented. The combined system comprises an industrial, simple-type gas turbine engine and a heat-pipe-based waste-heat recovery and utilization system, and the engine itself comprises an axial-ow compressor, tubular combustion chambers and an axialow turbine (Fig. 31). A water-in-steel type two-phase thermosyphon loop extracts waste energy from the stack of the gas turbine and delivers it to the generator of an aqua-ammonia absorption chiller, to produce chilled water which cools ambient air via a cooling tunnel; the

Fig. 31. Schematic arrangement of the waste-heat recovery and utilization system.

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cooled air is fed to the intake of the gas turbine compressor. Net power output of the overall system, when utilizing the water-in-steel heat-recovery system, is improved by 12% even when the inlet air to the turbine is cooled to a modest 208C; this is true for both the base load and 75% part-load operation (Fig. 32). Considerably higher boosting of output power is possible if the inlet air is cooled to lower temperatures. One of the most striking ndings of the modeling and simulation study is that the thermosyphon heat-recovery system is capable of producing considerably more cold air than is required by the gas turbine engine. It is further concluded that the thermal eciency of the engine does not deteriorate with rising ambient temperatures, as is the case in a system without the heat-recovery and utilization system (Fig. 33). 3.3.3. A heat pipe assisted heat-recovery and utilization system [60] An experimental facility is described for the recovery, by means of heat-pipes, of waste heat from exhaust gases, and the utilization of the recovered energy to cool ambient air (Fig. 34). To this end, heat of combustion gases, generated in stainless steel combustion chamber, is recovered from the stack by means of a heat-pipe system. The recovered heat is utilized to run an aqua-ammonia absorption chiller. Chilled water from the chillers is run through a fan-coil type cooling tunnel to cool the intake air of a (conceptual) gas turbine engine to boost its performance. It is concluded from test results that the experimental facility performs well, and that it behaves as predicted by modeling and simulation studies. The system is able to extract between 70 and 93% of the technically recoverable energy from exhaust gases (Table 14). This energy is considered as the ratio of drop in exhaust temperature to the maximum potential temperature dierence. Temperature gradients with time are shown for the dierent components of the experimental facility at gas inlet temperature to the exhaust pipe Ti, exh of 3008C (Figs. 35 and 36). 4. Conclusions The combined-cycle generation system features: high thermal eciency; low installed cost; fuel exibility with a wide range of gaseous and liquid fuels; low operation and maintenance

Fig. 32. Variation of net power output W(n ) with ambient temperature.

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Fig. 33. Variation of thermal eciency with ambient temper.

costs; operating exibility at base, mid-range and daily start; high reliability and availability; short installation times and high eciency in small capacity increments [48]. In particular: . Combined cycles boost power output and thermal eciency by amounts as high as 60%. . Gas turbines, when used in repowering to convert an existing steam plant to combined cycle, oer savings in capital cost and improvement in plant eciency. . Combined cycle, when integrated with coal gasication, holds promise in converting coal into electric power in an ecient, economical and environmentally acceptable manner. . Multitude of research works (utilizing gas turbine engines in combination with closed cycle, organic Rankine cycle, repowering, integrated power and refrigeration, cryogenic power, LNG gasication and inlet air cooling) predicted superior performance and economic feasibility. . Further advancements with alternative arrangements of combined cycles to suit dierent applications will be seen in the near future.

Fig. 34. Layout of the experimental setup.

Y.S.H. Najjar / Applied Thermal Engineering 21 (2001) 407438 Table 14 Temperature drop of exhaust gases in the heat and exchanger Inlet temperature Ambient temperature = 258C 378 361 274 212 Ambient temperature = 308C 206 312 476 Ambient temperature = 358C 155 501 Temperature drop 154 140 106 46 38 142 231 30 258

435

Ratio of recovery 71% 70% 93% 88% 83% 93% 73% Not applicable 76%

Fig. 35. Variation of system temperatures for Ti, exh = 3008C.

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Fig. 36. Variation of cooling-end temperatures for Tl, exh = 3008C.

. The gas turbine engine and its relevant combined cycles will continue to have increasing portion in the installed future power capacity.

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