TCP-IP-1

Briefly discuss the functions of transport layer. The Transport layer (also known as the Host-toHost Transport layer) provides the Application layer with session and datagram communication services. The Transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport layer. The core protocols of the Transport layer are TCP and UDP. TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications service. TCP establishes connections, sequences and acknowledges packets sent, and recovers packets lost during transmission. In contrast to TCP, UDP provides a one-toone or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable communications service. UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as the data that would fit into a single packet), when an application developer does not want the overhead associated with TCP connections, or when the applications or upper-layer protocols provide reliable delivery. TCP and UDP operate over both IPv4 and IPv6 Internet layers.

2.Explain the purpose of NCP in PPP.

The Network Control Protocol (NCP) phase in the PPP link connection process is used for establishing and configuring different network-layer protocols such as IP, IPX or AppleTalk. After a NCP has reached the Opened state, PPP will carry the corresponding network-layer protocol packets. Any supported network-layer protocol packets received when the corresponding NCP is not in the Opened state MUST be silently discarded. During this phase, link traffic consists of any possible combination of LCP, NCP, and network-layer protocol packets.

The most common layer 3 protocol negotiated is IP. The routers exchange IP Control Protocol (IPCP) messages negotiating options specific to the protocol. The corresponding network control protocol for IPv6 is IPv6CP. IPCP negotiates two options: compression and IP address assignments. However, IPCP is also used to pass network related information such as primary and backup Windows Name Service (WINS) and Domain Name System (DNS) servers. There are a large number of proposed standard protocols, which specify the operation of PPP over different kinds of point-to-point links. Each has a status of elective. Point-to-point circuits in the form of asynchronous and synchronous lines have long been the mainstay for data communications. In the TCP/IP world, the de facto standard SLIP protocol has served admirably in this area, and is still in widespread use for dial-up TCP/IP connections. However, SLIP has a number of drawbacks that are addressed by the Point-to-Point Protocol. PPP has three main components: A method for encapsulating datagrams over serial links. A Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and testing the data-link connection. A family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring different network-layer protocols.

3.What is fragmentation? Explain its significance. When an IP datagram travels from one host to another, it can pass through different physical networks. Each physical network has a maximum frame size. This is called the maximum transmission unit (MTU). It limits the length of a datagram that can be placed in one physical frame. IP implements a process to fragment datagrams exceeding the MTU. The process creates a set of datagrams within the maximum size. The receiving host reassembles the original datagram. IP requires that each link support a minimum MTU of 68 octets. This is the sum of the maximum IP header length (60 octets) and the minimum possible length of data in a non-final fragment (8 octets). If any network provides a lower value than this, fragmentation and reassembly must be implemented in the network interface layer. This must be transparent to IP. IP implementations are not required to handle unfragmented datagrams larger than 576 bytes. In practice, most implementations will accommodate larger values. An unfragmented datagram has an all-zero fragmentation information field. That is, the more fragments flag bit is zero and the fragment offset is zero. The following steps fragment the datagram: 1. The DF flag bit is checked to see if fragmentation is allowed. If the bit is set, the datagram will be discarded and an ICMP error returned to the originator. 2. Based on the MTU value, the data field is split into two or more parts. All newly created data portions must have a length that is a multiple of 8 octets, with the exception of the last data portion. 3. Each data portion is placed in an IP datagram. The headers of these datagrams are minor modifications of the original: The more fragments flag bit is set in all fragments except the last.

The fragment offset field in each is set to the location this data portion occupied in the original datagram, relative to the beginning of the original unfragmented datagram. The offset is measured in 8-octet units. If options were included in the original datagram, the high order bit of the option type byte determines if this information is copied to all fragment datagrams or only the first datagram. For example, source route options are copied in all fragments. The header length field of the new datagram is set. The total length field of the new datagram is set. //////////////////////////////////////////////////////// For full Version visit http://smudeassignments.blogspot.com/

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