1. (i) what do you mean by op-codes?

Ans:-Op-codes:-The operation code of an instruction is a group of bits that define such operations as add, subtract, multiply, shift, and compliment. The no. of bits required for the operation code of an instruction depends on the total no. of operations available in the computer. The operation code must consist of at least n bits for a given 2k distinct operations. The operation part of an instruction code specifies the operation to be performed. This operation must be performed on some data stored in processor register or in memory. 15 12 11
Opcode address

(ii)Define the term location counter. Ans: - Location Counter (LC):-The assembler uses a memory word called a location counter that is used to keep track of the location of instructions. The content of LC stores the value of memory location assigned to the instruction or operand presently being processed. The ORG pseudo-instruction initializes the location counter to the value of the first location. Instructions are stored in sequential locations; the content of LC is incremented by 1 after processing each line of code. (iii)What is the purpose of ALU. Ans:-Arithmetic Logic Unit:-the ALU performs that requires micro-operations for executing the instructions. The ALU provides arithmetic, computational and logic operations. The shifter may be placed in the input of the ALU to provide a pre4shift capability, or at the output of the ALU to provide post-shifting capabilities. The ALU performs an operation and the result of the operation is then transferred to a destination register. The ALU is a combinational circuit so that the entire register transfer can be performed during one clock pulse period. (iv)What is the difference between assembly language and high level language? Ans:-Difference between assembly language and high level language:Assembly language: A programming language that is once removed from a computer's machine language. Machine languages consist entirely of numbers and are almost impossible for humans to read and write.

Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as machine languages, but they enable a programmer to use names instead of numbers. Each type of CPU has its own machine language and assembly language, so an assembly language program written for one type of CPU won't run on another. In the early days of programming, all programs were written in assembly language. Now, most programs are written in a high-level language such as FORTRAN or C. Programmers still use assembly language when speed is essential or when they need to perform an operation that isn't possible in a high-level language. High-level language:-

y y y y

A high level language hides the micro abstractions such as set of command required to be performed by the processors such as CPU. Java and C++ are all high level languages. Java, C++ : all easy to write non-binary languages Example : (i=10, i<10,i++) It is not confined to particular machine. The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are easier to read, write, and maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level language must be translated into machine language by a compiler or interpreter.

(v)what is multiplexer. Ans:-Multiplexer:-a multiplexer is a combinational circuit that receives binary information from one of 2n input lines and directs it to a single output line. The selection of a particular input data line for the output is determined by a set of selection inputs. A 2n-to-1 multiplexer has 2n input data lines and n input selection lines whose bit combinations determine which input data are selected for the output. A0 A1 A2 A3
MUX (4-to-1)

S0

S1

(vi) What is the use of reverse polish notation? Ans:-Reverse polish notation (RPN):-the postfix notation is referred to as reverse polish notation in which operators are placed after the operands.

E.g. A+B can be written in reverse polish notation as AB+ The RPN is in a form suitable for stack manipulation. (vii) What is EPROM? Ans:-Erasable programming read only memory:-PROM can be electrically programmed. Unlike ROM and PROM chips, EPROM chips can be erased and reprogrammed. But in EPROM, you cannot delete the data in chunks. We need to remove the entire data on the disk even if you want to delete the part of the data. Eraser is performed by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light. PROM can be erased with electrical signal instead of ultraviolet light. Such PROM s are called electrically erasable PROM or EEPROM. (viii) What is auxiliary memory? Ans:-Auxiliary Memory:-Auxiliary memory is a storage device that provides backup storage. It is used for storing system program, large data files and other backup information. The information other than the program and data currently needed by the processor residing in main memory, are stored in auxiliary memory and transferred to main memory when needed. The most common auxiliary memory devices used in computer systems are magnetic disks and tapes. Auxiliary memory is used to provide suitable space for currently used program and data. (ix)What is a register? Ans:-Register:-A register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of information. An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops and is capable of storing any binary information of n bits. In addition of flip-flops, a register may have combinational gates that perform certain data-processing tasks. In other words, a register consists of a group of flip-flops and gates that effect their transition. The flip-flop hold the binary information and the gates control when and how new information is transferred into the register. The transfer of new information into a register is referred to as loading the register. (x)What is asynchronous data transfer? Ans:-Asynchronous data transfer:-If the register in the interface has individual clock with the CPU registers, the transfer between the two units is said to asynchronous transfer.

Asynchronous data transfer between two independent units requires that control signals be transmitted between the communicating units to indicate the time at which data is being transmitted. There are two way of achieving asynchronous data transfer: 1. By means of strobe pulse supplied by one of the units to indicate to the other unit when the transfer has to occur. 2. Another is to accompany each data item being transferred with a control signal that indicates the presence of data in the bus.