MTH3020: Complex Analysis

Lecture Notes (2010)

Todd A. Oliynyk
School of Mathematical Sciences
Monash University
Lecture Schedule
Week 1
L1 Revision of complex numbers
L2 Analytic functions
L3 Cauchy-Riemann equations
Week 2
L4 Elementary functions I
L5 Elementary functions II
L6 Elementary functions III
Week 3
L7 Line Integrals
L8 Cauchys Integral Theorem I
L9 Cauchys Integral Theorem II
Week 4
L10 Cauchys Integral Formula
L11 Applications of Cauchys Integral Formula
L12 Harmonic functions
Week 5
L13 Series: convergence tests
L14 Power series
L15 Taylor series
Week 6
L16 Laurent series
L17 Zeros and singularities
L18 The extended complex plane
Week 7
L19 The point at innity
L20 Residue Theorem I
L21 Residue Theorem II
Week 8
L22 Applications
L23 Applications
L24 Applications
1. REVIEW OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 3
1. Review of Complex Numbers
Fundamentals of Complex Analysis: Sections 1.1 - 1.5
1.1. What are the complex number? First consider the plane
R
2
= { (x, y) | x, y R}.
Expand a vector (x, y) R
2
in terms of the standard basis as follows
(x, y) = x(1, 0) + y(0, 1).
Rename the standard basis as
1 = (1, 0) and i = (0, 1)
so that
(x, y) = x1 + iy = x + iy.
In this notation, it is not dicult to see that the addition and scalar multiplication laws for vectors
become
c(x + iy) + (u + iv) = (cx + u) + i(cy + v) (1.1)
for all c, x, y, u, v R.
Note 1.1. Given a vector z = x + iy R
2
, x is known as the real part while y is known as the
imaginary part. We also dene the projections
Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y.
So far we only introduced a new notation for vectors in the plane. Here comes the amazing part:On R
2
there exists a multiplication that extends the standard multiplication on R. This multiplication
is dened as follows
(x + iy)(u + iv) = (xu yv) + i(xv + yu) (1.2)
for all x, y, u, v R.
We are now ready to dene the complex numbers
Definition 1.2. The plane R
2
together with the multiplication (1.2) is denoted by C, and called
the set of complex numbers. We will call a complex z C in standard form when it is written as
z = x + iy for some x, y R.
1.2. A laundry list useful of concepts.
1.2.1. Conjugate.
Definition 1.3. The conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy C is dened by
z = x + iy := x iy.
Notice that geometrically conjugation is just reection about the x-axis.
4
1.2.2. Modulus.
Definition 1.4. The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy C is just the length of the vector
z, i.e.
|z| = |x + iy| :=

x
2
+ y
2
. (1.3)
Alternate terminology for the modulus |z| is the absolute value or norm of z.
Proposition 1.5. The modulus satises the following properties for all z, w C:
(i) |w + z| |w| +|z|,
(ii) |z w| ||z| |w||,
(iii) |Re(z)| |z|, |Im(z)| |z|,
(iv) | z| = |z|, and
(v) |wz| = |z||w|.
Proof. Properties (i)-(iv) follow directly from treating w and z as vectors in the plane while property
(v) follows easily from the formulas (1.2) and (1.3) (Hw: verify this).
We also note the following useful formula which can be established by straight forward multiplication
(Hw: verify this):
|z|
2
= z z.
1.2.3. Division. As remarked above, the complex multiplication extends the real multiplication and
therefore complex numbers can be divided. The formula for doing this is given by
z
w
:=
z w
|w|
2
for all z, w C with w = 0. (1.4)
Note that using |w|
2
= w w, this can also be written as
z
w
=
z w
w w
.
We formalize the properties of addition, multiplication, and division in the following Proposition.
Proposition 1.6. Suppose v, w, z C. Then
(i) z + w = w + z and zw = wz (commutativity of addition and multiplication),
(ii) v + (w + z) = (v + w) + z and v(wz) = (vw)z (associativity of addition and multiplication),
(iii) 0 + z = z and 1z = z (additive and multiplicative identity),
(iv) v(w + z) = vw + vz (distributive law),
(v) z + z = 0 (additive inverse), and
(vi) if z = 0 then z
1
= z|z|
2
satises zz
1
= 1 (multiplicative inverse).
Proof. Follows by direct computation using the formulas (1.1), (1.2), and (1.4).
1.2.4. Polar Form. We can introduce standard polar coordinates by setting
x = r cos(), y = r sin(),
or equivalently
1
r =

x
2
+ y
2
, = arctan

y
x

.
Then any complex number z C can be written as
z = r(cos() + i sin()).
1
The formula = arctan(y/x) is actually not true for complex numbers in the third or fourth quadrants due to the
range of arctan lying in (, ). However, by adding or subtracting as appropriate, the correct answer can be recovered.
1. REVIEW OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 5
For the moment, we dene the symbol e
i
by
e
i
:= cos() + i sin() R.
This denition is known as the Euler Identity.
Using the Euler Identity, we can write z in the more compact polar form
z = re
i
.
As above,
|z| = r
is called the modulus of z, while
arg(z) := mod 2
is called the argument of z.
Example 1.7. Write 1 + i and 2 + 2

3i in polar form.
Solution:
1 + i =

2(cos(/4) + i sin(/4)) =

2e
i/4
and 2 + 2

3i = 4(cos(/3) + i sin(/3)) = 4e
i/3
.
Next, we state two other useful formulas:
|e
i
| =

cos()
2
+ sin()
2
= 1, (1.5)
and
e
i(+)
= e
i
e
i
for all , R. (1.6)
Note that the second formula follows directly from complex multiplication and standard trigonometric
identities (Hw: prove the identities (1.5) and (1.6)).
Using (1.6), multiplication and division of complex numbers take the particularly simple form
z
1
z
2
= (r
1
e
i
1
r
2
e
i
2
) = r
1
r
2
e
i(
1
+
2
)
, (1.7)
and
z
1
z
2
=
r
1
e
i
1
r
2
e
i
2
=
r
1
r
2
e
i(
1

2
)
.
Equation (1.7) coupled with induction can be used to establish De Moivres Theorem:
z
n
= (re
i
)
n
= r
n
e
in
n N,
and also to dene the n
th
root of a complex number:
z
1/n
= (re
i
)
1/n
= r
1/n
e
i(+2k)/n
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Example 1.8. Calculate
(1 + i)
10
2 + 2

3i
.
Solution:
(1 + i)
10
2 + 2

3i
=
(

2e
i/4
)
10
4e
i/3
=
2
5
e
i5/4
4e
i/3
= 8e
i(5/41/3)
= 8e
i11/12
.
Example 1.9. Calculate (1 + i)
1/5
.
Solution:
(1 + i)
1/5
= (

2e
i/4
)
1/5
= 2
1/10
e
i(/4+2k)/5
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
6
2. Analytic Functions
Fundamentals of Complex Analysis: Sections 1.6, 2.1-2.5
2.1. Sets in the complex plane.
2.1.1. Disks. We use the following notation for an open disk of radius centered at z
0
:
B(z
o
) := { z C| |z z
o
| < }
We will often refer to an open disk centered at z
0
, i.e. B

(z
0
), as a neighborhood of z
0
. In addition to
open disks, we will also need punctured open disks:
B

(z
o
) := { z C| 0 < |z z
o
| < }.
2.1.2. Topology.
Definition 2.1. A point z S C is an interior point interior point of S if there exists a > 0
such that B

(z) S. The collection of interior points is called the interior of S and denoted by
o
S.
Definition 2.2. A set S C is called open if S =
o
S. The collection of all open subset of C is called
its topology.
Definition 2.3. A set S C is called closed if the complement S
c
:= C \ S is open.
Definition 2.4. A point z S C is called a boundary point of S if every disc B

(z) S =
and B

(z) S
c
= . The collection of boundary point is called the boundary of S and denoted by S.
Definition 2.5. A set S C is bounded if there exists a > 0 such that S B

(0).
Definition 2.6. A set S C is called compact if it is closed and bounded.
Proposition 2.7.
(i) A set S C is open if and only if S S = .
(ii) A set S C is closed if and only if S S.
Proof. (Hw: provide a proof.)
In light of this Proposition, it makes sense to dene the closure of a set S by

S = S S.
2.1.3. Domains. Given n + 1 points z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n+1
C, we let l
j
denote the line segment that
connects z
j
to z
j
+ 1. The union
n
j=1
l
j
form a continuous chain called a polygonal path from z
1
to
z
n+1
.
Definition 2.8. A set S C is connected if every pair of points z
1
, z
2
S in S can be connected
by by a polygonal path that lies entirely in S.
Definition 2.9. A set D C is called a domain if it is open and connected.
2.2. Complex functions.
Definition 2.10. A complex function is a map
f : S C C
from a subset S of the complex numbers to the complex numbers. The set of S is called the domain of
f and is denoted by Dom(f). The image set f(S) = { f(z) | z S } is call the range of f and is denoted
by Ran(f).
2. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 7
It is important to realize that a complex function f(z) can always be written as
f(z) = u(z) + iv(z)
where u, v : S C R are two real valued maps. Indeed, we can dene
u(z) := Re(f(z)) and v(z) := Im(f(z)) for all z C.
We will refer to u and v as the real and imaginary part of f.
Note 2.11. We may sometimes
f = Ref + iImf
to denote the decomposition of f into real and imaginary parts. We will use all of the following notations
interchangeably:
f(z) = f(x + iy), u(z) = u(x + iy) = u(x, y),
and
v(z) = (x + iy) = v(x, y).
Example 2.12.
(i) Find the domain and the real and imaginary parts of
f(z) = z
2
.
(ii) What is the range of f restricted to the quarter closed disk Q = {re
i
| 0 r

2, 0
/2 }?
Solution:
(i) Since,
f(x + iy) = (x + iy)(x + iy) = (x
2
y
2
) + i2xy,
we see that
Ref(x + iy) = x
2
y
2
, Imf(x + iy) = 2xy
and
Dom(f) = C.
(ii) It follows immediately from the formula f(re
i
) = r
2
e
i2
that
f(Q) = {re
i
| 0 r

2, 0 }.
Example 2.13. Find the domain and the real and imaginary parts of
f(z) =
z
z z 1
.
Solution:
Since
f(x + iy) =
x + iy
(x + iy)(x iy) 1
=
x + iy
(x
2
+ y
2
) 1
=
x
(x
2
+ y
2
) 1
+ i
y
(x
2
+ y
2
) 1
,
we see that
Ref(x + iy) =
x
(x
2
+ y
2
) 1
, Imf(x + iy) =
y
(x
2
+ y
2
) 1
,
8
and
Dom(f) = {z C|z z = 1}.
2.3. Limits and continuity.
Definition 2.14. Let f(z) be a complex function that is dened on the punctured disc B

(z
0
).
Then f(z) has a limit w as z goes to z
0
if for every > 0 there exists a 0 < < such that
|f(z) w| <
whenever 0 < |z z
0
| < . It is conventional to write
w = lim
zz
0
f(z).
With limits of functions dened, we can now introduce the notion of a continuity.
Definition 2.15. Let f(z) be a complex function that is dened in a neighborhood of z
0
. Then f(z)
is continous at z
0
if
f(z
0
) = lim
zz
0
f(z).
Example 2.16. Show that the function f(z) = z
2
is continuous at z = 0.
Solution:
Since
|f(z) f(0)| = |z|
2
,
we see that
|f(z) f(z
0
)| <
whenever |z| < =

. Therefore f(z) = z
2
is continuous at z = 0. (Hw: Show that f(z) is continuous
at any z
0
C.)
Example 2.17. Show that f(z) = 1/z is continuous for all z = 0. (Hw: Verify this statement.)
There is another method for verifying continuity of functions that is base on limits of functions
applied to convergent sequences.
Definition 2.18. A sequence {z
n
}

n=1
C is said to have a limit z or converge to z if for any
> 0 there exists a N N such that
|z
n
z| <
for all n > N.
When a limit z exists for a sequence {z
n
}

n=0
, we write
lim
n
z
n
= z
On the other hand, if the sequence {z
n
}

n=0
does not have a limit then it is said to diverge.
Example 2.19.
(i) The sequence z
n
= 1 + 1/n, n = 1, 2, . . ., is convergent, and
lim
n
z
n
= 1.
(Verify this!)
(ii) The sequence z
n
= (1)
n
, n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., is divergent. (Why?)
We recall the Cauchy criterion which is often very useful to establish the convergence of a series.
2. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 9
Theorem 2.20. [Cauchy criterion for convergence] A sequence {z
n
}

n=0
converges if and only if for
every > 0 there exists a N N such that
|z
n
z
m
| <
whenever n, m N.
Proposition 2.21. The limit lim
zz
0
f(z) exists if and only if the limit lim
n
f(z
n
) exists for
every sequence convergent sequence {z
n
}

n=1
with limit z
0
. Moreover, if f(z) is continuous at z
0
(i.e.
f(z
0
) = lim
zz
0
f(z)) and {z
n
}

n=1
converges to z
0
, then
lim
n
f(z
n
) = f

lim
n
z
n

.
Proof. (Hw: Provide a proof of this proposition.)
A useful property of continuous functions is that composition of continuous functions are again
continuous:
Theorem 2.22. If g(z) is continuous at z
0
and f(z) is continuous at w
0
= g(z
0
), then the composition
f g(z) = f(g(z)) is continuous at z
0
.
Proof. (Hw: provide a proof of this Theorem.)
In practice we use composition to build new continuous functions out of known ones. An example of
this procedure is the following:
Example 2.23. We know from the above Example that f(z) = 1/z is continuous for all z = 0. This
if g(z) is continuous at z
0
and g(z
0
) = 0 then
f(g(z)) =
1
g(z)
is continuous at z = z
0
by Theorem 2.22.
2.4. Derivatives and analytic functions. In exactly the same way as for real variable functions,
we can dene the derivative of a complex function.
Definition 2.24. A complex function f(z) is dierentiable at z
0
if it is dened in a neighborhood
of z
0
and the limit
f

(z
0
) = lim
w0
f(z
0
+ w) f(z
0
)
w
exits. The limit f

(z
0
) is called the derivative of f(z) at z
0
.
We will also use the notation
df
dz
(z
0
) = f

(z
0
)
for a derivative.
Example 2.25. Let f(z) = z. Find f

(z) for all z C.

Solution:
Example 2.26. Let f(z) = 1/z. Find f

(z) for all z = 0.

Solution:
Example 2.27. Show that f(z) = z is not dierentiable for any z C.
Solution:
10
Complex dierentiation satises all of the standard properties that you are familiar with from real
variable calculus:
Proposition 2.28. Suppose f(z) and g(z) are dierentiable at z
0
. Then
(i) (linearity)
(cf + g)

(z
0
) = cf

(z
0
) + g

(z
0
) (c C),
(ii) (product rule)
(fg)

(z
0
) = f

(z
0
)g(z
0
) + f(z
0
)g

(z
0
),
(iii) (quotient rule)

f
g

(z
0
) =
f

(z
0
)g(z
0
) f(z
0
)g

(z
0
)
g(z
0
)
2
(g(z
0
) = 0),
and
(v) f(z) and g(z) are continuous at z
0
.
Moreover, if f(z) is dierentiable at g(z
0
), then
(vi) (chain rule)
(f g)

(z
0
) = f

(g(z
0
))g

(z
0
) (f g(z) := f(g(z))).
Proof. (Hw: Show that the same proofs of these dierentiation rules from single variable calculus
carry over to the complex setting.)
Example 2.29. Show that
(z
n
)

= nz
n1
for all n N.
Solution:
We already showed that z

= 1. So proceeding by induction, assume that the formula (z

k
) = kz
k1
holds for k = 1, 2, . . . n. Then by the product rule
(z
n+1
)

= (zz
n
)

= z

z
n
+ z(z
n
)

= z
n
+ nz
n
= (n + 1)z
n
which completes the induction step.
Example 2.30. Let
f(z) =
2 + z
3
1 z + z
2
+ (1 + 10z)
20
.
Find f

(z).
Solution:
We are now ready to dene analytic functions. The rest of this course will be about studying
properties of analytic functions.
Definition 2.31. Let U C be an open set an f a complex function with U Dom(f). Then f
is analytic in U if f is dierentiable at every point in U. If U = C, then f is said to be an entire
function.
In the mathematics literature, the term holomorphic is often used instead of analytic.
2. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 11
Example 2.32. The function
f(z) = z
n
(n N)
is entire since the derivative
f

(z) = nz
n1
is well dened for all z C.
Example 2.33. The function
f(z) =
1
z
is analytic on the open set
U = C \ {0} = { z C| |z| > 0 }
since the derivative
f

(z) =
1
z
2
is well dened for all z U.
2.5. Cauchy-Riemann equations. Determining if a complex function is dierentiable directly
from the denition can be dicult. In this section, we introduce an alternative procedure that is quite
simple to use.
Theorem 2.34. Suppose f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is a complex function that is dierentiable at
the point z
0
= x
0
+ iy
0
. Then the partial derivatives
u
x
,
u
y
,
v
x
,
v
y
,
all exist at the point (x
0
, y
0
) and satisfy
u
x

(x
0
,y
0
)
=
v
y

(x
0
,y
0
)
(2.1)
v
x

(x
0
,y
0
)
=
u
y

(x
0
,y
0
)
. (2.2)
Remark 2.35. Equations (2.1)-(2.2) are known as the Cauchy-Riemann equations, or CR-
equations for short.
Proof. Since f is dierentiable at z
0
= x
0
+ iy
0
, setting w = h (h R) in the denition of the
derivative yields
f

(z
0
) = lim
h0
f((x
0
+ h) + iy
0
) f(x
0
+ iy
0
)
h
.
Separating into real an imaginary parts gives
f

(z
0
) = lim
h0
u(x
0
+ h, y
0
) u(x
0
, y
0
)
h
+ i
v(x
0
+ h, y
0
) v(x
0
, y
0
)
h
=
u
x

(x
0
,y
0
)
+i
v
x

(x
0
,y
0
)
. (2.3)
Also, a similar calculation using w = ih (h R) shows that
f

(z
0
) =
v
y

(x
0
,y
0
)
i
u
y

(x
0
,y
0
)
. (2.4)
From (2.3) and (2.4), it is then clear that the CR-equations (2.1)-(2.2) hold. 2
The real importance of the Cauchy-Riemann equations is that they imply a partial converse of the
previous theorem.
12
Theorem 2.36. Let z
0
= x
0
+iy
0
and suppose that f(x+iy) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) is a complex function
such that
(i) f is dened in a neighborhood of z
0
,
(ii) the partial derivatives
u
x
,
u
y
,
v
x
,
v
y
,
exist in a neighborhood of (x
0
, y
0
) and are continuous at (x
0
, y
0
), and
(iii) the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u
x
=
v
y
,
v
x
=
u
y
,
are satised at (x
0
, y
0
).
Then f is dierentiable at z
0
.
Proof. By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists points z, z on the line connecting z
0
= x
0
+ iy
0
to z
0
+ w, where w = l + ik, such that
u(z
0
+ w) u(z
0
) = u( z) w and v(z
0
+ w) v(z
0
) = v( z) w.
So
f(z
0
+ w) f(z
0
)
w
=
u( z) w + iv( z) w
w
=
u(z
0
) w + iu(z
0
) w
w
+ R(w) (2.5)
where
R(w) =

u( z) u(z
0
)

w + i

v( z) v(z
0
)

w
.
Using the CR-equations, we can write (2.5) as
f(z
0
+ w) f(z
0
)
w
= u
x
(z
0
) + iv
x
(z
0
) + R(w). (2.6)
Since
|R(w)| |u( z) u(z
0
)| +|v( z) v(z
0
)|,
it follows from the continuity of the partial derivatives that
lim
w0
R(w) = 0.
Using this, we see from (2.6) that
f

(z
0
) = lim
w0
f(z
0
+ w) f(z
0
)
w
= u
x
(z
0
) + iv
x
(z
0
),
which shows that f(z) is dierentiable at z
0
.
2.5.1. Derivative formulas. A recap of useful derivative formulas:
(a)
f

(z) = lim
w0
f(z + w) f(z)
w
2. ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS 13
(b)
f

= u
x
+ iv
x
= v
y
iu
y
= u
x
iu
y
= v
y
+ iv
x
where
u
x
= v
y
and u
y
= v
x
Note: here we are using the notation
u
x
=
u
x
, u
y
=
u
y
, v
x
=
v
x
, v
y
=
v
y
,
Example 2.37. Use the CR-equations to show that
f(z) = 2z + z
2
is an entire function and that
f

(z) = 2(1 + z).

Solution:
Example 2.38. Determine where the function
f(x + iy) = x
2
+ y
2
+ i2xy
is analytic.
Solution:
As a nal application of the CR-equations, we prove the following proposition.
Proposition 2.39. Suppose f(z) is analytic on a domain D and that f

(z) = 0 for all z D. Then

f(z) is constant on D.
Proof.
2.5.2. CR-equations: polar form. It is often useful for calculational purposes to express to Cauchy-
Riemann equations in polar form. Writing
f(re
i
) = u(r, ) + iv(r, ),
the CR-equations are given by (Hw: verify this)
u
r
=
1
r
v

, v
r
=
1
r
u

,
where
u
r
=
u
r
, u

=
u

, v
r
=
v
r
, v

=
v

.
Also the derivative can be calculated using
f

(re
i
) = e
i
(u
r
+ iv
r
) =
e
i
r
(v

iu

).
Example 2.40. Use the polar form of the Cauchy-Riemann equations to show that
f(z) = z
10
is an entire function and that
f

(z) = 10z
9
.
Solution:
14
3. Elementary Functions
Fundamentals of Complex Analysis: Sections 3.2 - 3.3, 3.5
3.1. Exponential Function. The complex exponential function e
z
is dened by
e
x+iy
= e
x
(cos(y) + i sin(y)) for all x, y R. (3.1)
The following properties satised the function (3.1) justify calling it the complex exponential function.
Proposition 3.1.
(i) On the real axis, the complex exponential e
z
reduces to the standard exponential function, i.e.
e
x+iy

y=0
= e
x
for all x R.
(ii) On the imaginary axis, the complex exponential reduces to the Euler Identity, i.e.
e
x+iy

x=0
= cos(y) + i sin(y) for all y R.
(iii) The complex exponential is an entire function and its derivative is given by
(e
z
)

= e
z
for all z C.
(iv)
e
w+z
= e
w
e
z
for all w, z C.
(v)
|e
x+iy
| = e
x
for all x, y R.
Proof. Statements (i) and (ii) are obvious, and we will only (iii). The proof of statements (iv)
and (v) are for homework.
The next example will give some practice in manipulating the complex exponential.
Example 3.2. Find all solutions of e
z
= 1.
Solution:
Example 3.3. Show that e
z
= e
w
if and only if z = w + 2ik for k Z.
Solution:
3.2. Trigonometric Functions. The complex sine and cosine functions are dened by the
following formulas
sin(z) =
1
2i

e
iz
e
iz

, and cos(z) =
1
2

e
iz
+ e
iz

.
Proposition 3.4.
(i) The complex trigonometric functions cos(z) and sin(z) are entire, and
cos

(z) = sin(z) and sin

(z) = cos(z).
(ii) For all w, z C, the following identities are satised:
cos(z w) = cos(z) cos(w) sin(z) sin(w)
sin(z w) = sin(z) cos(w) sin(w) cos(z)
and
cos
2
(z) + sin
2
(z) = 1.
Proof. (Hw: Prove statements (i) and (ii)).
3. ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS 15
The next example will give us practice with manipulating the complex trigonometric functions.
Example 3.5. Show that sin(z) = 0 if and only if z = k for k Z.(Hw: Show that cos(z) = 0 if
and only if z = (k + 1/2) for k Z.
Solution:
We also dene the other complex trigonometric functions in exactly the same way as in the real case:
tan(z) =
sin(z)
cos z
, cot(z) =
cos(z)
sin(z)
,
sec(z) =
1
cos(z)
, csc(z) =
1
sin(z)
.
The derivative formulas for these functions are the same as in the real case, and can be derived using the
derivative formulas for cos(z) and sin(z) along with the chain rule.
3.3. Hyperbolic Functions. The complex hyperbolic sine and cosine functions are dened by
cosh(z) =
1
2

e
z
+ e
z
) and sinh(z) =
1
2

e
z
e
z
) .
Proposition 3.6.
(i) The function cosh(z) and sinh(z) are entire, and
cosh

(z) = sinh(z) and sinh

(z) = cosh(z).
(ii) For all w, z C, the following identities hold:
cosh(iz) = cos(z), sinh(iz) = i sin(z),
cos(iz) = cosh(z), sin(iz) = i sinh(z),
cosh(z + w) = cosh(z) cosh(w) + sinh(z) sinh(w),
sinh(z + w) = sinh(z) cosh(w) + cosh(z) sinh(w).
Proof. (Hw: Prove statements (i) and (ii)).
As in the real case, the other hyperbolic functions are dened by:
tanh(z) =
sinh(z)
cosh(z)
, coth(z) =
cosh(z)
sinh(z)
,
sech(z) =
1
cosh(z)
, csch(z) =
1
sinh(z)
.
3.4. Logarithms. As in the real case, the natural logarithm, denoted ln(z), is dened by the relation
e
ln(z)
= z. (3.2)
However, care must be taken since, unlike the real variable case, the equation
e
w
= z
does not have a unique solution w for a given z C. To see this, express z = 0 in polar form:
z = re
i
= e
ln(r)+i
= e
ln(r)+i(+2n)
n Z.
Then it is clear that if we want (3.2) to be satised, then we must make the the logarithm set valued
or multi-valued:
ln(z) = ln(re
i
) = {ln(r) + i( + 2n) | n Z}.
So the logarithm is no longer a function, but is a map from points in the complex plane to
countably innite subset of the complex plane.
16
To deal with this multi-valuedness, we dene the principal value of ln(z) by
Ln(z) = ln |z| + iArg(z), (3.3)
where Arg(z) is the principal argument of z which is dened as
Arg(re
i
) = if (, ].
All other values of the logarithm can be recovered by the formula
ln(z) = {Ln(z) + 2ni | n Z}.
The formula (3.3), i.e.
Ln(re
i
) = ln r + i r > 0, < <
for the principal value of ln(z) is an example of choosing a branch of ln(z).
Definition 3.7. A branch of a multiple-valued function f(z) is a continuous function F(z) (that is
single valued) dened on a domain D for which F(z) is one of the values of f(z) for each z D.
Other branch choices for the logarithm are
ln(re
i
) = ln r + i r > 0, < < + 2
where R.
Example 3.8. Show that the formula (3.3) denes a function which is analytic on the domain
D = C \ (, 0] with derivative given by
Ln

(z) =
1
z
for all z D.
Solution:
Example 3.9. Express ln(1 i) in standard form
Solution:
3.5. General Powers. A general power of a complex number z is dened by
z
w
= e
wln(z)
for all w, z C
Remark 3.10.
(i) Since ln(z) is a set valued, it follows that z
w
is set valued.
(ii) The particular value
e
wLn(z)
is called the principal value of z
w
.
Example 3.11. Calculate i
1+i
.
Solution:
Example 3.12. Show that z
w
= e
wLn(z)
is analytic on the domain D = C \ (, 0] and that
d
dz
z
w
= w
z
w
z
.
3. ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS 17
3.6. Inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. The inverse sine function
w = arcsin(z),
is dened by the equation
z = sin(w) =
e
iw
e
iw
2i
.
Rearranging, we nd
e
2iw
2ize
iw
1 = 0.
Solving for e
iw
, we nd
e
iw
= iz + (1 z
2
)
1/2
.
Finally, taking logarithms of both sides yields
arcsin(z) = i ln(iz + (1 z
2
)
1/2
).
Clearly, this is a multiple-valued function due to the square root and the logarithm which are both
multiple-valued. With principle values for the logarithm and square root, we obtain the prinicple value
of arcsin(z) dened by
Arcsinz = iLn(iz + e
(1/2)Ln(1z
2
)
).
Similar calculation show that
arccos(z) = i ln(z + (z
2
1)
1/2
),
arctan(z) =
i
2
ln

i + z
i z

=
i
2
ln

1 iz
1 + iz

(z = i),
arcsinh(z) = ln(z + (z
2
+ 1)
1/2
),
arccosh(z) = ln(z + (z
2
1)
1/2
),
and
arctanh(z) =
1
2
ln

1 + z
1 z

(z = 1).
18
4. Complex Integration
Fundamentals of Complex Analysis: Sections 4.1 - 4.2
4.1. Curves in the complex plane.
Definition 4.1. (i) A smooth curve/path is a set that can be represented in the form:
C = { z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) | a t b },
where x(t) and y(t) are smooth real valued functions that satisfy
|z

(t)| = |x

(t) + iy

(t)| > 0 for a t b.

The map z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) is called a parametrization of C.
(ii) A piecewise smooth curve/path/contour is a nite concatenation of smooth paths. Given
smooth paths C
k
k = 1, .. connecting points z
k
to z
k
+ 1, we will write
C = C
1
+C
2
+ +C

to denote the piecewise smooth path formed by concatenating the cures C

k
.
(iii) A piecewise smooth curve is called simple if it is not self intersecting.
(iv) The piecewise smooth curve
C = { z(t) | a t b }
is called closed if z(a) = z(b).
(v) The length of the curve C is given by
(C) =

b
a
|z

(t)| dt.
Remark 4.2. Letting z(t) = x(t)+iy(t) a t b denote a parametrization of a curve C, the formula
|z

(t)| = |x

(t) + iy

(t)| =

(x

(t))
2
+ (y

(t))
2
show that the length of C given by
(C) =

b
a
|z

(t)| dt =

b
a

(x

(t))
2
+ (y

(t))
2
dt.
coincides with the standard notion of the length of a curve in R
2
.
Example 4.3.
(i) The unit circle
C = { e
it
| 0 t 2 }
is a smooth, simple, closed curve.
(ii) The curve
C = C
1
C
2
,
where
C
1
= { t + it | 0 t 1 } and C
2
= { 1 + i(2 t) | 1 t 2 }
is a piecewise smooth, simple path.
4. COMPLEX INTEGRATION 19
(iii) The following smooth paths are not simple:
Remark 4.4.
(i) The parametrization for a piecewise smooth curve is not unique. For example the unit circle
C = { z C| |z| = 1 }
can be represented as
C = { e
it
| 0 t 2 },
or
C =

exp

i2
e
t
1
(e 1)

0 t 1

.
(ii) The parametrization denes an orientation of C by the direction of motion of z(t) = x(t)+iy(t)
as t increases.
Example 4.5. Let C be the straightline path connecting two points z
0
, z
1
in the complex plane, Find
a parametrization of C with a orientation determined by the direction of travel from z
0
to z
1
.
Answer:
Example 4.6. Let f(x) be a real function, and C be the curve connecting the point z
0
= x
0
+if(x
0
)
to z
1
= x
1
+ if(x
1
) along the graph of f(x). Find a parametrization for C.
Answer:
Example 4.7. Let C be the circle of radius centered at z
0
with clockwise orientation. Find a
parametrization for C.
Answer:
4.2. Line (Contour/Path) Integrals.
Definition 4.8. Let
C = { z(t) = x(t) + y(t) | a t b }
be a parametrization of a piecewise smooth path and suppose f(z) is a continuous complex function with
C Dom(f). Then the complex line (contour/path) integral along C, denoted

C
fdz, is dened
by the formula

C
f(z)dz =

b
a
f(z(t))z

(t)dt.
20
Letting f = u + iv denote the decomposition of f into real and imaginary parts, the above formula
becomes

C
f(z)dz =

b
a

u(x(t), y(t))x

(t) v(x(t), y(t))y

(t)

dt
+ i

b
a

u(x(t), y(t))y

(t) + v(x(t), y(t))x

(t)

dt. (4.1)
Remark 4.9.
(i) From formula (4.1) and standard theorems on integration from real variable calculus, it follows
that the line integral always exists for curves of nite lengths as we are assuming the paths are
piecewise smooth and the function f(z) is continuous.
(ii) The change of variables formula from real variable calculus together with (4.1) can be used to
show that the line integral is independent of the choice of parametrization up to orientation;
that is, if
C = { z
1
(t) | a
1
t b
1
} = { z
2
(t) | a
2
t b
2
}
where z
1
(t) and z
2
(t) dene the same orientation on C, then

b
1
a
1
f(z
1
(t))z

1
(t) dt =

b
2
a
2
f(z
2
(t))z

2
(t) dt.
Example 4.10. Assuming a counterclockwise orientation for the unit circle, calculate

|z|=1
1
z
dz.
Solution:
4.2.1. Properties of the complex line integral.
Proposition 4.11.
(i) Linearity

wf(z) + g(z)

dz = w

C
f(z) dz +

C
g(z) dz
for all continuous complex functions f(z), g(z) and w C.
(ii) Orientation Reversal
Let C be a curve with a xed orientation and C be the same curve with the opposite
orientation. Then

C
f(z) dz =

C
f(z) dz.
(iii) Path Partitioning
If
C =
m

k=1
C
k
is a decomposition of a piecewise smooth path C into smaller disjoint piecewise smooth paths,
then

C
f(z) dz =
m

k=1

C
k
f(z) dz.
4. COMPLEX INTEGRATION 21
(iv) ML Inequality
If M = max
zC
{f(z)} and L = (C), then

C
f(z) dz

ML.
Proof. We only proof (iv) and leave the proof of statements (i)-(iii) for homework.
To begin, we let z(t) a t b be a parametrization of z(t). Then

C
f(z) dz

b
a
f(z(t))z

(t) dt

b
a
|f(z(t))z

(t)| dt

b
a
|f(z(t))||z

(t)| dt
max
asb
|f(z(s))|

b
a
|z

(t)| dt
= max
zC
|f(z)|(C).

Example 4.12. Evaluate the following line integral

C
z dz
where C is the triangle with a counterclockwise orientation and vertices at 0, 1, and i.
Solution:
Remark 4.13. Path Dependence If C
1
and C
2
are two piecewise smooth paths connecting z
0
to
z
1
, then, in general,

C
1
f(z) dz =

C
2
f(z) dz.