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ADVERBS Adverb (kata keterangan/tambahan) adalah kata yang dipakai untuk menerangkan bagian dari tata bahasa yang

mana saja kecuali kata benda dan kata ganti. a) Adverb menerangkan kata kerja Contoh: She speaks English fluently. Ia berbicara bahasa Inggris dengan fasih b) Adverb menerangkan kata sifat Contoh: It s now too hot to play tennis. Sekarang udara terlalu panas untuk bermain tenis c) Adverb menerangkan kata adverb lainnya Contoh: She sings very well. Ia menyanyi dengan baik sekali d) Adverb menerangkan kata depan Contoh: The cat was sitting almost outside the door. Kucing itu sedang duduk hampir di luar pintu Di sini adverb almost menerangkan kata depan outside. e) Adverb menerangkan kata sambung Contoh: I want to know precisely how the accident happened. Saya ingin mengetahui secara pasti bagaimana kecelakaan itu terjadi Adverb dapat menerangkan bukan saja kata-kata yang terpisah tetapi juga sebuah kalimat asertif (yaitu kalimat yang hanya menegaskan atau menyangkal sesuatu). Dalam hal ini adverb harus ditempatkan di posisi awal kalimat. Direct object adalah salah satu object yang harus dipahami oleh para pecinta Grammar. Pembahasannya begitu penting karena direct object adalah salah satu bagian penting dalam sebuah kalimat. Jika sebuah kalimat memiliki kata kerja transitive, maka keberadaan direct object menjadi wajib adanya. Oleh karena itu, mari kita sedikit demi sedikit memahami beberapa karakteristik atau ciri-ciri direct object. Pembahasan tentang ciri-ciri direct object ini saya adaptasi dari buku karangan Greenbaum (1996:63-64). Untuk menghormati beliau, saya sedikit mengutipkan beberapa kata berbahasa Inggris yang ditulis Greenbaum dalam bukunya tersebut agar pembahasan tentang direct object ini benar-benar langsung dari sang pengarang. When the main verb does not have a complement, it is intransitive. When it has a direct object (O), it is transitive. Many verbs can be either intransitive or transitive: Saat kata kerja utama tidak memiliki object, maka kata kerja tersebut dinamakan intransitive. Sebaliknya, saat kata kerja mempunyai object, maka kata kerja tersebut dinamakan transitive. Ada banyak kata kerja yang bisa jadi intransitive ataupun transitive. Contoh: I (S) am eating (V). I (S) am eating (V) my lunch (0). Keterangan: Kata kerja eat dinamakan intransitive jika setelahnya tidak diikuti oleh object. Sedangkan jika eat diikuti dengan object, maka kata kerja eat dinamakan transitive. If a sentence has only one complement of the verb and that complement is a direct object, its basic structure is SVO. We can identify the direct object in a declarative sentence if we can elicit it as a response to a question beginning with who or what followed by the operator and the subject: Jika sebuah kalimat hanya memiliki satu object dan object tersebut adalah direct object, maka susunan kalimat dasarnya adalah Subject + Verb + Object. Kita dapat mengenali direct object pada kalimat ungkapan jika kita mengungkapkannya sebagai respon dari pertanyaan yang diawali dengan kata tanya who atau what yang diikuti oleh auxiliary (Greenbaum mengistilahkannya dengan operator) dan juga subject.

Contoh: She (S) would have asked (V) her parents (0). Who (0) would (v) she (S) have asked (V)? They (S) speak (V) Welsh (0) at home. At home what (0) do (v) they (S) speak (V)

Read more: http://hallurmala.blogspot.com/2011/04/karakteristik-direct-object.html#ixzz1PKaZUHEC Types Articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite.[2] A few languages with well-developed systems of articles may distinguish additional subtypes. Within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, according to grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case, or according to adjacent sounds. [edit] Definite article A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English is the. The children know the fastest way home. The sentence above contrasts with the much more general observation that: Children know the fastest way home. Likewise, Give me the book has a markedly different meaning in most English contexts from Give me a book. It can also be used to indicate a specific class among other classes: The cabbage white butterfly lays its eggs on members of the Brassica genus. But it should not be used to refer to a specimen: *The writing is the human invention. [edit] Indefinite article An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. English uses a/an, from the Old English forms of the number 'one', as its indefinite article. The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even if spelled with an initial consonant, as in an hour), and a before words that begin with a consonant sound (even if spelled with a vowel, as in a European). She had a house so large that an elephant would get lost without a map.

Before some words beginning with a pronounced (not silent) h in an unstressed first syllable, such as hallucination, hilarious, historic(al), horrendous, and horrific, some (especially older) British writers prefer to use an over a (an historical event, etc.).[3] An is also preferred before hotel by some writers of BrE (probably reflecting the relatively recent adoption of the word from French, where the h is not pronounced).[4] The use of "an" before words beginning with an unstressed "h" is more common generally in BrE than American.[4] Such usage would now be seen as affected or incorrect in AmE.[5] American writers normally use a in all these cases, although there are occasional uses of an historic(al) in AmE.[6] According to the New Oxford Dictionary of English, such use is increasingly rare in BrE too.[3] Unlike BrE, AmE typically uses an before herb, since the h in this word is silent for most Americans. [edit] Partitive article A partitive article is a type of indefinite article used with a mass noun such as water, to indicate a non-specific quantity of it. Partitive articles are used in French and Italian in addition to definite and indefinite articles. The nearest equivalent in English is some, although this is considered a determiner and not an article. French: Voulez-vous du caf ? Do you want (some) coffee? (or, dialectally but more accurately, Do you want some of this coffee?) See also more information about the French partitive article. [edit] Negative article A negative article specifies none of its noun, and can thus be regarded as neither definite nor indefinite. On the other hand, some consider such a word to be a simple determiner rather than an article. In English, this function is fulfilled by no. No man is an island. [edit] Zero article The zero article is the absence of an article. In languages having a definite article, the lack of an article specifically indicates that the noun is indefinite. Linguists interested in X-bar theory causally link zero articles to nouns lacking a determiner.[7] In English, the zero article rather than the indefinite is used with plurals and mass nouns, although the word "some" can be used as an indefinite plural article. Adjective (kata sifat) Adjective bisa ditempatkan sebelum kata benda. Contoh: This is a beautiful bird. This is a bird beautiful. tidak benar.

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Kata sifat memberikan informasi seperti ukuran (kecil, besar), bentuk (bulat, persegi), warna (kuning, hijau), kebangsaan (Cina, Polandia), dan opini (baik, buruk). Adjective tidak mengalami perubahan yang tergantung pada jumlah (tunggal atau jamak). Contoh: She has a cute puppy. She has three cute puppies.

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Perhatikan bahwa adjective (cute) tidak mengalami perubahan baik dalam bentuk tunggal (puppy) maupun jamak (puppies). Adjective juga bisa ditempatkan setelah kata kerja tertentu seperti be, feel, look, dan taste. Contoh: I m really happy today. She s got a new job so she feels great. You look wonderful! This chicken tastes delicious.

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Questions have a number of uses. 'Raising a question' may guide the questioner along an avenue of research (see Socratic method). A rhetorical question is asked in order to make a point, and does not expect an answer (often the answer is implied or obvious). Presuppositional questions, such as "Have you stopped beating your wife?" may be used as a joke or to embarrass an audience, because any answer a person could give would imply more information than he was willing to affirm. Questions can also be titles of works of art and literature (e.g. Leo Tolstoy's short story How Much Land Does a Man Need? and the movie What About Bob?). McKenzie lists 17 types of questions in his "Questioning Toolkit" and suggests that thinkers must orchestrate and combine these types in his article "Punchy Question Combinations". Examples of his question types include the irreverent question, the apparently irrelevant question, the hypothetical question and the unanswerable question. [edit] In research projects 1. 2. 3. Descriptive question, used primarily to describe the existence of some thing or process. Relational question, designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. Causal question, designed to determine whether one or more variables causes or affects one or more outcome variables.[1]

[edit] In surveys 1. 2. Dichotomous questions, usually these questions require yes/no answers or require a person to answer by choosing an option(s) from a multiple choice of possible answers. Nominal questions, these types of questions are designed to inquire about a level of quantitative measure. Usually these questions form correlations between a number and a concept. For example:

Occupational Class: 1= Moderate 2= Severe 3= etc.[2] 1. Qualifying questions (also called filter questions, or contingency questions) These types of questions are designed to determine if the individual answering the question needs to continue on to answer subsequent questions.

[edit] Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Categories of questions) Knowledge: who, what, when, where, why, how..? Describe...? Comprehension: retell... Application: How is...an example of...?; how is...related to...?; why is...significant? Analysis: What are the parts or features of...? Classify...according to...; Synthesis: What would you infer from...? What ideas can you add to...? How would you design a new..? What would happen if you combined...? What solutions would you suggest for...? Evaluation: Do you agree that...? What do you think about...? What is the most important..? Place the following in order of priority...? How would you decide about...? What criteria would you use to assess...? [3]

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[edit] Grammar Languages may use both syntax and prosody to distinguish interrogative sentences (which pose questions) from declarative sentences (which state propositions). Syntax refers to grammatical changes, such as moving words around or adding questions words; prosody refers to changes in tone of voice while speaking. Some syntactic devices used by languages for marking questions include: A marked word order different from the usual word order in statements (see wh-movement). For example, French speakers may ask questions using inversion, and English speakers may do so in sentences with auxiliary verbs (as in "Do you want...?" as opposed to "You do want...."). An interrogative mood or some other verb inflection such as the subjunctive mood A grammatical particle (cf. Japanese ka, Mandarin ma) Replacing a word in a declarative sentence with an interrogative word (also known as a wh-word) such as "what". For example, in English the declarative "you want something" can be changed into a question by replacing 'something' with 'what' and moving it, as well as adding the auxiliary "do" ("What do you want?"); in Mandarin, however, only the first step is necessary ( n yo shnme, lit. "you want what?")

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Non-syntactic devices include: A different intonation pattern (often a raised pitch near the end of the sentence) - see Intonation (linguistics) (In written language) distinctive punctuation, such as the question mark

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Combinations of any of the above are possible, as well as alternative patterns for different types of questions. For example, English employs the syntactic approach (word order change) and the tonal pattern for common questions, but resorts to just raising the tone while leaving the word order as it is for focused (emphatic) questions such as "You did what?". Spanish changes the word order only when interrogative pronouns are involved (not in yes-no questions). In Chinese, the word order remains the same for questions as for statements, with the particle added to create a wh-interrogative in situ. In languages written in the Latin alphabet or Cyrillic alphabet, a question mark at the end of the sentence identifies questions orthographically. In Spanish, an additional mark is placed at the beginning (e.g. Cmo est usted?). "Negative questions" are interrogative sentences which contain negation in their phrasing, such as "Shouldn't you be working?". These can have different ways of expressing affirmation and denial from the standard form of question, and they can be confusing, since it is sometimes unclear whether the answer should be the opposite of the answer to the non-negated question. For example, if one does not have a passport, both "Do you have a passport?" and "Don't you have a passport?" are properly answered with "No", despite apparently asking opposite questions. The Japanese language avoids this ambiguity. Answering "No" to the second of these in Japanese would mean, "I do have a passport". A similar ambiguous question in English is "Do you mind if...?" The responder may not reply unambiguously "Yes, I do mind," if they do, or "No, I don't mind," if they don't, a simple "No" or "Yes" answer can lead to confusion, as a single "No" can seem like a "Yes, I do mind," as in "No, please don't do that," and a "Yes" can seem like a "No, I don't mind," as in "Yes, go ahead." An easy way to bypass this confusion would be to ask a non-negative question, such as "Is it all right with you if...?" Some languages have different particles (for example the French "si" and the German "doch") to answer negative questions (or negative statements) in an affirmative way; they provide a means to express contradiction. There are three types of sentences in the English language where the predicate can come before the subject. An interrogative sentence is one such one; for example, in "what did you buy?", the predicate "what" comes before the subject "you". [edit] Types Yes/no-questions o Yes/no questions can be answered with a "yes" or "no", hence the name. Wh-questions o Wh-questions use interrogative words to request information. In some languages, wh-movement may be involved. They cannot be answered with a yes or no. Tag questions o Tag questions are a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the "tag"), such as "right" for example, "You remembered the eggs, right?" Tag questions can be answered with a yes or no.

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Definition Adpositions form a heterogeneous class, with boundaries that tend to overlap with other categories (like verbs, nouns, and adjectives). It is thus impossible to provide an absolute definition that picks out all and only the adpositions in every language. The following features, however, are often required of adpositions. An adposition combines syntactically with exactly one complement phrase, most often a noun phrase (or, in a different analysis, a determiner phrase). (In some analyses, an adposition need have no complement. See below.) In English, this is generally a noun (or something functioning as a noun, e.g., a gerund), called the object of the preposition, together with its attendant modifiers. An adposition establishes the grammatical relationship that links its complement phrase to another word or phrase in the context. In English, it also establishes a semantic relationship, which may be spatial (in, on, under, ...), temporal (after, during, ...), or logical (via, ...) in nature. An adposition determines certain grammatical properties of its complement (e.g. its case). In English, the objects of prepositions are always in the objective case. In Koine Greek, certain prepositions always take their objects in a certain case (e.g., always takes its object in the dative), and other prepositions may take their object in one of several cases, depending on the meaning of the preposition (e.g., takes its object in the genitive or in the accusative, depending on the meaning). Adpositions are non-inflecting (or "invariant"); i.e., they do not have paradigms of forms (for different tenses, cases, genders, etc.) in the same way as verbs, adjectives, and nouns in the same language. There are exceptions, though, for example in Celtic languages (see Inflected preposition).

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[edit] Properties

The following properties are characteristic of most adpositional systems. Adpositions are among the most frequently occurring words in languages that have them. For example, one frequency ranking for English word forms [6] begins as follows (adpositions in bold): the, of, and, to, a, in, that, it, is, was, I, for, on, you, The most common adpositions are single, monomorphemic words. According to the ranking cited above, for example, the most common English prepositions are the following: on, in, to, by, for, with, at, of, from, as, Adpositions form a closed class of lexical items and cannot be productively derived from words of other categories.

[edit] Stranding Main article: Preposition stranding Preposition stranding is a syntactic construct in which a preposition with an object occurs somewhere other than immediately next to its object. For example: Who did you give it to? where to refers to who, which is placed at the beginning of the sentence because it is an interrogative word. The above sentence is much more common and natural than the equivalent sentence without stranding: To who(m) did you give it? Preposition stranding is most commonly found in English,[7] as well as North Germanic languages such as Swedish. The existence of preposition stranding in German and Dutch is debated. Preposition stranding is also found in languages outside the Germanic family, such as Vata and Gbadi (languages of the Niger-Congo) and the dialects of some North American French speakers. [edit] Classification Adpositions can be organized into subclasses according to various criteria. These can be based on directly observable properties (such as the adposition's form or its position in the sentence) or on less visible properties (such as the adposition's meaning or function in the context at hand). [edit] Simple vs complex Simple adpositions consist of a single word, while complex adpositions consist of a group of words that act as one unit. Some examples of complex prepositions in English are: in spite of, with respect to, except for, by dint of, next to

The boundary between simple and complex adpositions is not clear-cut and for the most part arbitrary. Many simple adpositions are derived from complex forms (e.g. with + in within, by + side beside) through grammaticalization. This change takes time, and during the transitional stages the adposition acts in some ways like a single word, and in other ways like a multi-word unit. For example, current German orthographic conventions recognize the indeterminate status of the following adpositions, allowing two spellings:[8] anstelle / an Stelle ("instead of"), aufgrund / auf Grund ("because of"), mithilfe / mit Hilfe ("thanks to"), zugunsten / zu Gunsten ("in favor of"), zuungunsten / zu Ungunsten ("to the disadvantage of"), zulasten / zu Lasten ("at the expense of")

The boundary between complex adpositions and free combinations of words is also a fuzzy one. For English, this involves structures of the form "preposition + (article) + noun + preposition". Many sequences in English, such as in front of, that are traditionally regarded as prepositional phrases are not so regarded by linguists. [9] The following characteristics are good indications that a given combination is "frozen" enough to be considered a complex preposition in English: It contains a word that cannot be used in any other context: by dint of, in lieu of. The first preposition cannot be replaced: with a view to but not *for/without a view to It is impossible to insert an article, or to use a different article: on *an/*the account of, for the/*a sake of The range of possible adjectives is very limited: in great favor of, but not *in helpful favor of The number of the noun cannot be changed: by virtue/*virtues of It is impossible to use a possessive determiner: in spite of him, not *in his spite

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Complex prepositions develop through the grammaticalization of commonly used free combinations. This is an ongoing process that introduces new prepositions into English. [10] [edit] Classification by position The position of an adposition with respect to its complement allows the following subclasses to be defined: A preposition precedes its complement to form a prepositional phrase. German: auf dem Tisch, French: sur la table, Polish: na stole ("on the table") A postposition follows its complement to form a postpositional phrase. Chinese: zhu zi shng (lit. "table on"), Finnish: (minun) kanssani (lit. "my with"), Turkish: benimle (or "benim ile"), Latin: mecum (both lit. "me with"), English: three days ago The two terms are more commonly used than the general adposition. Whether a language has primarily prepositions or postpositions is seen as an important aspect of its typological classification, correlated with many other properties of the language. It is usually straightforward to establish whether an adposition precedes or follows its complement. In some cases, the complement may not appear in a typical position. For example, in preposition stranding constructions, the complement appears before the preposition: {How much money} did you say the guy wanted to sell us the car for? She's going to the Bahamas? {Who} with?

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In other cases, the complement of the adposition is absent: I'm going to the park. Do you want to come with? French: Il fait trop froid, je ne suis pas habille pour. ("It's too cold, I'm not dressed for [the situation].")

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The adpositions in the examples are generally still considered prepositions because when they form a phrase with the complement (in more ordinary constructions), they must appear first. Some adpositions can appear on either side of their complement; these can be called ambipositions (Reindl 2001, Libert 2006): He slept {through the whole night}/{the whole night through}. German: {meiner Meinung nach}/{nach meiner Meinung} ("in my opinion")

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An ambiposition entlang (along). It can be put before or after the noun related to it (but with different noun cases attached to it). die Strae entlang entlang der Strae along the road Another adposition surrounds its complement, called a circumposition: A circumposition has two parts, which surround the complement to form a circumpositional phrase. o English: from now on o Dutch: naar het einde toe ("towards the end", lit. "to the end to") o Mandarin: cng b ngx ang l ("from the inside of the refrigerator", lit. "from refrigerator inside") o French: un dtail prs ("except for one detail", lit. "at one detail near")

"Circumposition" can be a useful descriptive term, though most circumpositional phrases can be broken down into a more hierarchical structure, or given a different analysis altogether. For example, the Mandarin example above could be analyzed as a prepositional phrase

headed by cng ("from"), taking the postpositional phrase b ngx ang l ("refrigerator inside") as its complement. Alternatively, the cng may be analyzed as not a preposition at all (see the section below regarding coverbs). An inposition is an adposition between constituents of a complex complement.[11] Ambiposition is sometimes used for an adposition that can function as either a preposition or a postposition.[12]

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Melis (2003) proposes the descriptive term interposition for adpositions in the structures such as the following: mot mot ("word for word"), coup sur coup ("one after another, repeatedly"), page aprs page ("page upon page")

An interposition is not an adposition which appears inside its complement as the two nouns do not form a single phrase (there is no *mot mot or *page page). Examples of actually interposed adpositions can be found in Latin (e.g. summa cum laude, lit. "highest with praise"). But they are always related to a more basic prepositional structure. [edit] Classification by complement Although noun phrases are the most typical complements, adpositions can in fact combine with a variety of syntactic categories, much like verbs. noun phrases: It was on {the table}. adpositional phrases: Come out from {under the bed}. adjectives and adjective phrases: The scene went from {blindingly bright} to {pitch black}. adverbs or adverb phrases: I worked there until {recently} infinitival or participial verb phrases: Let's think about {solving this problem}. interrogative clauses: We can't agree on {whether to have children or not} full sentences (see Conjunctions below)

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Also like verbs, adpositions can appear without a complement; see Adverbs below. Some adpositions could be described as combining with two complements: {With Sammy president}, we can all come out of hiding again. {For Sammy to become president}, they'd have to seriously modify the Constitution.

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It is more commonly assumed, however, that Sammy and the following predicate first forms a [small clause], which then becomes the single complement of the preposition. (In the first example above, a word (such as as) may be considered to be ellided, which, if present, would clarify the grammatical relationship.) [edit] Semantic classification Adpositions can be used to express a wide range of semantic relations between their complement and the rest of the context. The following list is not an exhaustive classification: spatial relations: location (inclusion, exclusion, proximity), direction (origin, path, endpoint) temporal relations comparison: equality, opposition, price, rate content: source, material, subject matter agent instrument, means, manner cause, purpose Reference

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Most common adpositions are highly polysemous, and much research is devoted to the description and explanation of the various interconnected meanings of particular adpositions. In many cases a primary, spatial meaning can be identified, which is then extended to non-spatial uses by metaphorical or other processes.

In some contexts, adpositions appear in contexts where their semantic contribution is minimal, perhaps altogether absent. Such adpositions are sometimes referred to as functional or case-marking adpositions, and they are lexically selected by another element in the construction, or fixed by the construction as a whole. English: dispense with formalities, listen to my advice, good at mathematics Russian: otvechat' na vopros (lit. "answer on the question"), obvinenie v obmane ("accusation in [i.e. of] fraud") Spanish: soar con ganar el ttulo ("dream with [i.e. about] winning the title"), consistir en dos grupos ("consist in [i.e. of] two groups")

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It is usually possible to find some semantic motivation for the choice of a given adposition, but it is generally impossible to explain why other semantically motivated adpositions are excluded in the same context. The selection of the correct adposition in these cases is a matter of syntactic well-formedness. [edit] Subclasses of spatial adpositions Spatial adpositions can be divided into two main classes, namely directional and static ones. A directional adposition usually involves motion along a path over time, but can also denote a non-temporal path. Examples of directional adpositions include to, from, towards, into, along and through. Bob went to the store. (movement over time) A path into the woods. (non-temporal path) The fog extended from London to Paris. (non-temporal path)

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A static adposition normally does not involve movement. Examples of these include at, in, on, beside, behind, under and above. Bob is at the store.

Directional adpositions differ from static ones in that they normally can't combine with a copula to yield a predicate, though there are some exceptions to this, as in Bob is from Australia, which may perhaps be thought of as special uses. Fine: Bob is in his bedroom. (in is static) Bad: *Bob is to his bedroom. (to is directional)

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Directional spatial adpositions can only combine with verbs that involve motion; static prepositions can combine with other verbs as well. Fine: Bob is lying down in his bedroom. Bad: *Bob is lying down into/from his bedroom.

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When a static adposition combines with a motion verb, it sometimes takes on a directional meaning. The following sentence can either mean that Bob jumped around in the water, or else that he jumped so that he ended up in the water. Bob jumped in the water.

In some languages, directional adpositions govern a different case on their complement than static ones. These are known as casally modulated prepositions. For example, in German, directional adpositions govern accusative while static ones govern dative. Adpositions that are ambiguous between directional and static interpretations govern accusative when they are interpreted as directional, and dative when they are interpreted as static. in seinem Zimmer (in his-DATIVE room) "in his room" (static) in sein Zimmer (in his-ACCUSATIVE room) "into his room" (directional)

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Directional adpositions can be further divided into telic ones and atelic ones. To, into and across are telic: they involve movement all the way to the endpoint denoted by their complement. Atelic ones include towards and along. When telic adpositions combine with a motion verb, the result is a telic verb phrase. Atelic adpositions give rise to atelic verb phrases when so combined. [13]

Static adpositions can be further subdivided into projective and non-projective ones. A non-projective static adposition is one whose meaning can be determined by inspecting the meaning of its complement and the meaning of the preposition itself. A projective static adposition requires, in addition, a perspective or point of view. If I say that Bob is behind the rock, you need to know where I am to know on which side of the rock Bob is supposed to be. If I say that your pen is to the left of my book, you also need to know what my point of view is. No such point of view is required in the interpretation of sentences like your pen is on the desk. Projective static prepositions can sometimes take the complement itself as "point of view," if this provides us with certain information. For example, a house normally has a front and a back, so a sentence like the following is actually ambiguous between two readings: one has it that Bob is at the back of the house; the other has it that Bob is on the other side of the house, with respect to the speaker's point of view. Bob is behind the house.

A similar effect can be observed with left of, given that objects that have fronts and backs can also be ascribed lefts and rights. The sentence, My keys are to the left of the phone, can either mean that they are on the speaker's left of the phone, or on the phone's left of the phone. [14] [edit] Classification by grammatical function Particular uses of adpositions can be classified according to the function of the adpositional phrase in the sentence. Modification o adverb-like The athlete ran {across the goal line}.

adjective-like  attributively

A road trip {with children} is not the most relaxing vacation.

in the predicate position

The key is {under the plastic rock}. Syntactic functions o complement Let's dispense with the formalities. Here the words dispense and with complement one another, functioning as a unit to mean forego, and they share the direct object (the formalities). The verb dispense would not have this meaning without the word with to complement it. {In the cellar} was chosen as the best place to hide the bodies. Adpositional languages typically single out a particular adposition for the following special functions: marking possession marking the agent in the passive construction marking the beneficiary role in transfer relations

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Adverb particle [edit] Overlaps with other categories A word like up, off, in, down and out, used as part of a phrasal verb. Come in. Stand up.

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He walked away.

Many words of this kind can be used as both adverb particles and prepositions, but there are some exceptions. Examples are: back, away (only adverb particles); from, during (only prepositions). When words like these are used as prepositions, they have objects. Adverb particles do not take objects after them. She jumped down (preposition) the stairs (objective). Please sit down (adverb particle).

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Adverbs particles often join together with verbs to make two-word verbs. These are often called phrasal verbs. Could you switch off the light?

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Inversion

Inversions consist on putting the auxiliary verb (do/does, have/has, did, etc.) or even modal verbs (should, must, ought to, etc.) before the subject of a clause, and this is what we can see in questions: Had you finished when he arrived?

Had is the auxiliary verb of the perfect tense placed "before" you, the subject of the sentence. What we have just seen is the most common use of inversions. However; inversions are also used in many other situations. They are used with negative and restrictive adverbs (only, never, hardly, little, etc.) to emphasize the sentence. For example: You can say "Only later they learnt his terrible secret." but to give more emphasize to this sentence you can change it as if it was a question (but don't get confused because it isn't a questions, it doesn't take question mark "?"), so the sentence looks like this: "Only later did they learn his terrible secret." it's important the fact that in the end they got to know the secret so the inversion in the sentence remarks that. Analize the following examples. What is the inversion emphasizing? Which is the tense of the sentence? How would the sentence be without the inversion? Only then can you belong to me. Never before had I seen such awful behaviuor. Little do you know how much trouble you are in. Not only was he angry, but also very tired. Never should you remember who's your boss.

y y y y y

How would you invert the following sentences? Can you think of any other example? She goes to school every day. (She does go to school every day.) She went to the party. You have to learn from your mistakes.

y y y

Inversions have a wide range of uses. However, in this lesson I only explain the one on negative and restrictive adverbs. Other uses of inversions include: so, nor and neither (I'm very tired, so am I); conditional clauses (Had you been ready, we wouldn't have been late); exclamations (Isn't he lazy!); and others. ngan Adverbia (surat keterangan kata / Transaksi) adalah kata Yang dipakai untuk menerangkan Name of Dari tata bahasa Yang mana Saja kecuali kata Benda dan kata ganti. a) Adverbia menerangkan kata kerja jangka pendek Contoh: Dia berbicara bahasa Inggris dengan lancar. Ia berbicara bahasa Inggris fasih Artikel Baru b) Adverbia menerangkan kata Sifat Contoh: Sekarang terlalu panas untuk bermain tenis. Sekarang Udara Terlalu panas untuk Bermain Tenis c) Adverbia adverb menerangkan kata Lainnya

Contoh: Dia menyanyi dengan sangat baik. Ia menyanyi Artikel Baru Baik Sekali d) Adverbia menerangkan kata Depan Contoh: Kucing sedang duduk hampir di luar pintu. Kucing ITU sedang Duduk hampir di Pintu Luar Di Sini adverbia hampir kata luar Depan menerangkan. e) Adverbia menerangkan kata sambung Contoh: Saya ingin tahu persis bagaimana kecelakaan itu terjadi. Saya Ingin mengetahui bagaimana Secara iuran pasti terjadi kecelakaan ITU Adverbia dapat menerangkan Bukan kata-kata Saja Yang terpisah tetapi Juga sebuah kalimat asertif (Sesuatu Yang Hanya kalimat atau menegaskan yaitu menyangkal). KESAWAN hal Suami adverbia Harus ditempatkan di Posisi akhir kalimat. Objek langsung adalah objek salah Satu Yang dipahami para pecinta Harus Dibuat Grammar. Pembahasannya begitu parts KARENA objek langsung adalah salah Name of Satu parts KESAWAN sebuah kalimat. Jika sebuah kalimat memiliki kata kerja jangka pendek transitif, Maka keberadaan menjadi objek adanya Wajib langsung. Dibuat KARENA ITU, mari Kita sedikit demi sedikit memahami beberapa karakteristik atau ciri-ciri objek langsung. Pembahasan Tentang ciri-ciri objek langsung Suami otonashi adaptasi Dari buku Karangan Greenbaum (1996:63-64). Untuk menghormati beliau saya, saya sedikit mengutipkan beberapa kata berbahasa Inggris Yang ditulis bukunya KESAWAN Greenbaum pembahasan tersebut agar-agar objek Tentang Suami langsung Dari Langsung Benar-Benar bernyanyi Pengarang. Ketika kata kerja utama tidak memiliki pelengkap, itu adalah intransitif. Ketika memiliki objek langsung (O), itu adalah transitif. Banyak verba dapat berupa intransitif atau transitif: Saat kata kerja jangka Utama regular tidak memiliki objek, Maka kata kerja jangka pendek tersebut dinamakan intransitif. Sebaliknya, Saat kata kerja jangka pendek mempunyai objek, Maka kata kerja jangka pendek tersebut dinamakan transitif. Ada BANYAK kata kerja jangka pendek ataupun Yang Bisa Jadi transitif intransitif. Contoh: I (S) sedang makan (V). I (S) sedang makan (V) siang saya (0). Keterangan: Kata kerja jangka pendek dinamakan intransitif 'makan' jika setelahnya regular tidak diikuti objek Dibuat. 'Memakan' Artikel Baru Sedangkan jika objek diikuti, Maka kata kerja jangka pendek 'memakan' dinamakan transitif. Jika kalimat hanya memiliki satu pelengkap dari kata kerja dan yang melengkapi adalah objek langsung, struktur dasarnya adalah SVO. Kita dapat mengidentifikasi objek langsung dalam kalimat deklaratif jika kita dapat menimbulkan hal itu sebagai respon terhadap pertanyaan yang dimulai dengan siapa atau apa yang diikuti oleh operator dan subjek: Jika sebuah kalimat memiliki objek Hanya Satu objek dan objek tersebut adalah langsung, Maka susunan kalimat dasarnya adalah Subject + Verb + Object. Kita dapat mengenali objek langsung PADA kalimat ungkapan jika Kita mengungkapkannya sebagai respon Dari Pertanyaan Yang diawali Artikel Baru tanya kata siapa atau apa yang diikuti Yang Dibuat tambahan (Greenbaum mengistilahkannya operator Artikel Baru) subjek dan Juga. Contoh: Dia (S) akan bertanya (V) orang tuanya (0). Siapa (0) akan (v) dia (S) telah meminta (V) Mereka (S) berbicara (V) Welsh (0) di rumah. Di rumah apa (0) lakukan (v) mereka (S) berbicara (V) Baca lebih lanjut: http://hallurmala.blogspot.com/2011/04/karakteristik-direct-object.html # ixzz1PKaZUHEC Jenis Artikel biasanya ditandai sebagai tertentu atau tidak terbatas [2] Sebuah beberapa bahasa dengan sistem yang sudah berkembang dari artikel dapat membedakan jenis subtipe tambahan.. Dalam masing-masing jenis, bahasa mungkin memiliki berbagai bentuk setiap artikel, sesuai dengan atribut gramatikal seperti jenis kelamin, nomor, atau kasus, atau sesuai dengan suara yang berdekatan.

[Sunting] Artikel Tertentu Sebuah artikel yang pasti menunjukkan bahwa kata benda adalah satu tertentu (atau yang) diidentifikasi untuk pendengar. Ini mungkin hal yang sama bahwa pembicara telah disebutkan, atau mungkin sesuatu yang unik ditentukan. Artikel yang pasti dalam bahasa Inggris adalah. Anak-anak tahu jalan pulang tercepat. kalimat di atas berbeda dengan pengamatan umum jauh lebih bahwa: Anak-anak tahu perjalanan pulang tercepat. Demikian juga, Berikan saya buku memiliki arti yang sangat berbeda dalam konteks bahasa Inggris sebagian besar dariBeri aku buku. Hal ini juga dapat digunakan untuk menunjukkan kelas khusus antara kelas-kelas lain: Kupu-kupu kol putih bertelur pada anggota dari genus Brassica. Tapi tidak boleh digunakan untuk merujuk kepada spesimen: * Penulisan adalah penemuan manusia. [Sunting] Artikel tak tentu Sebuah artikel tidak tentu menunjukkan bahwa kata benda yang bukan merupakan salah satu tertentu (atau yang) diidentifikasi untuk pendengar. Ini mungkin sesuatu yang pembicara yang menyebutkan untuk pertama kalinya, atau identitas yang tepat yang mungkin tidak relevan atau hipotetis, atau pembicara mungkin membuat pernyataan umum tentang hal seperti itu. Bahasa Inggris menggunakan / seorang, dari bentuk-bentuk bahasa Inggris Lama nomor 'satu', seperti sandang tidak tentu nya. Bentuknya adalah digunakan sebelum kata-kata yang dimulai dengan suara vokal (bahkan jika dieja dengan konsonan awal, seperti dalam satu jam), dan sebelum kata-kata yang dimulai dengan suara konsonan (bahkan jika dieja dengan vokal, seperti dalam sebuah Eropa ). Dia memiliki rumah besar sehingga gajah akan tersesat tanpa peta. Sebelum beberapa kata yang dimulai dengan h (tidak diam) diucapkan dalam suku kata pertama tanpa tekanan, seperti halusinasi, lucu, bersejarah (al), mengerikan, dan mengerikan, beberapa (terutama yang lebih tua) penulis Inggris lebih memilih untuk menggunakan lebih dari satu (sebuah sejarah acara, dll). [3] An juga disukai sebelum hotel oleh beberapa penulis Bre (mungkin mencerminkan penerapan yang relatif baru dari kata dari bahasa Perancis, di mana h tidak diucapkan). [4] Penggunaan "sebuah" sebelum kata dimulai dengan "h" tanpa tekanan lebih umum umumnya Bre dari Amerika [4] penggunaan seperti sekarang. akan dilihat sebagai terpengaruh atau tidak benar di Ame [5] penulis Amerika biasanya. digunakan dalam semua kasus ini, meskipun ada sesekali menggunakan sebuah bersejarah (al) di Ame [6] Menurut New Oxford Kamus Bahasa Inggris,. penggunaan tersebut semakin jarang terjadi di Bre terlalu [3]. Tidak seperti Bre, Ame biasanya menggunakan sebelum herbal, sejak h dalam kata diam untuk kebanyakan orang Amerika. [Sunting] Artikel partitif Sebuah artikel partitif adalah jenis sandang tidak tentu digunakan dengan kata benda massa seperti air, untuk menunjukkan jumlah nonspesifik itu. artikel partitif digunakan dalam bahasa Prancis dan Italia di samping artikel yang pasti dan tidak terbatas. Setara terdekat dalam bahasa Inggris adalah beberapa, meskipun hal ini dianggap sebagai penentu dan bukan artikel. Perancis: Voulez-vous du kafe? Apakah Anda ingin (beberapa) kopi? (Atau, dialectally tetapi lebih akurat, Apakah Anda ingin beberapa kopi ini?) Lihat informasi juga lebih tentang artikel partitif Perancis. [Sunting] Artikel Negatif Sebuah artikel negatif menetapkan satu pun dari kata benda, dan dengan demikian dapat dianggap sebagai tidak pasti atau tidak terbatas. Di sisi lain, beberapa menganggap kata tersebut menjadi penentu sederhana daripada artikel. Dalam bahasa Inggris, fungsi ini dipenuhi oleh no. Tidak ada orang yang pulau. [Sunting] Artikel Nol Artikel nol adalah tidak adanya artikel. Dalam bahasa memiliki artikel tertentu, kurangnya artikel khusus menunjukkan bahwa kata benda yang tidak terbatas. Ahli bahasa tertarik dengan teori X-bar kausal nol link artikel untuk nomina kurang penentu [7] Dalam bahasa Inggris., Artikel nol daripada waktu yang tidak terbatas digunakan dengan bentuk jamak dan kata benda massa, meskipun kata "beberapa" dapat digunakan sebagai tak terbatas jamak artikel. Kata sifat (Sifat kata) Bisa ditempatkan at Adjektiva kata Benda. Contoh: Ini adalah burung yang indah. "Ini adalah burung yang indah." Benar regular tidak. Kata Sifat memberikan Informasi Pembongkaran ukuran (Kecil, Besar), Bentuk (bulat, persegi), warna (kuning, hijau), Kebangsaan (Cina, Polandia), dan Opini (Baik, Buruk). Adjektiva regular tidak mengalami perubahan Yang Aset PADA tergantung (jamak atau tunggal). Contoh: Dia memiliki anak anjing lucu. Dia memiliki tiga anak anjing lucu. Perhatikan bahwa kata sifat (cute) regular tidak mengalami perubahan Baik KESAWAN Bentuk tunggal (anjing) maupun jamak (anak anjing). Adjektiva Juga Bisa ditempatkan Penghasilan kena pajak Pembongkaran kerja jangka pendek kata tertentu menjadi, merasa, melihat, dan rasa. Contoh:

ini. besar. hebat! ayam ini rasanya lezat. Pertanyaan memiliki sejumlah kegunaan. 'Budidaya pertanyaan' dapat memandu kuesioner sepanjang jalan dari penelitian (lihat metode Sokrates). Sebuah pertanyaan retoris diminta untuk membuat titik, dan tidak mengharapkan jawaban (seringkali jawabannya tersirat atau jelas). Pra-pertanyaan yg disangka benar, seperti "Apakah Anda berhenti memukul istri Anda?" dapat digunakan sebagai lelucon atau mempermalukan penonton, karena setiap jawaban seseorang akan berarti bisa memberikan informasi lebih banyak daripada ia bersedia untuk menegaskan. Pertanyaan juga dapat judul karya seni dan sastra (misalnya cerpen Leo Tolstoy Berapa Land Apakah Perlu Man dan film Apa Tentang Bob??). McKenzie daftar 17 jenis pertanyaan dalam "Mempertanyakan Toolkit" dan menunjukkan bahwa para pemikir harus mengatur dan menggabungkan jenis ini dalam artikelnya "punchy Pertanyaan Kombinasi". Contoh jenis pertanyaan itu termasuk pertanyaan sopan, pertanyaan yang tampaknya tidak relevan, pertanyaan hipotetis dan pertanyaan terjawab. [Sunting] Dalam proyek-proyek penelitian 1. pertanyaan deskriptif, digunakan terutama untuk menggambarkan adanya beberapa hal atau proses. 2. Pertanyaan relasional, yang dirancang untuk melihat hubungan antara dua variabel atau lebih. 3. Pertanyaan kausal, yang dirancang untuk menentukan apakah satu atau lebih variabel penyebab atau mempengaruhi satu atau lebih variabel hasil. [1] [Sunting] Dalam survei 1. pertanyaan Dikotomi, biasanya pertanyaan-pertanyaan ini membutuhkan ya / tidak jawaban atau meminta seseorang untuk menjawab dengan memilih opsi (s) dari pilihan ganda kemungkinan jawaban. 2. Nominal pertanyaan, jenis pertanyaan yang dirancang untuk menanyakan tentang tingkat ukuran kuantitatif. Biasanya pertanyaanpertanyaan ini membentuk korelasi antara angka dan konsep. Sebagai contoh: Occupational Kelas: 1 = Moderat 2 = Parah 3 = dll [2] 1. Kualifikasi pertanyaan (pertanyaan filter juga disebut, atau pertanyaan darurat) ini jenis pertanyaan yang dirancang untuk menentukan apakah individu menjawab pertanyaan perlu melanjutkan untuk menjawab pertanyaan berikutnya. [Sunting] Taksonomi Bloom Pendidikan Tujuan (Kategori pertanyaan) Pengetahuan: siapa, apa, kapan, di mana, mengapa, bagaimana ..? Jelaskan ...? Pemahaman: menceritakan kembali ... Aplikasi: Bagaimana ... contoh ...?; bagaimana ... terkait dengan ...?; mengapa ... penting? Analisis: Apa adalah bagian atau fitur dari ...? Mengklasifikasikan ... menurut ...; Sintesis: Apa yang akan Anda simpulkan dari ...? Apa ide-ide yang dapat Anda tambahkan ke ...? Bagaimana Anda merancang .. baru? Apa yang akan terjadi jika Anda dikombinasikan ...? Apa solusi yang akan Anda sarankan untuk ...? Evaluasi: Apakah Anda setuju bahwa ...? Apa pendapat Anda tentang ...? Apa .. yang paling penting? Tempat berikut dalam urutan prioritas ...? Bagaimana Anda memutuskan tentang ...? Kriteria apa yang akan Anda gunakan untuk menilai ...? [3] [Sunting] Grammar Bahasa dapat menggunakan kedua sintaks dan prosodi untuk membedakan kalimat tanya (ya Dia baru dia merasa

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