Electrical Conductivity p. 17.

1
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
Electrical conductivity, ,
varies by 20 orders of magnitude
among commonplace materials:
Typical Electrical Conductivities at Room Temperature
Material , ( m)
-1
Material , ( m)
-1
Pure metals Semiconductors
Ag 6.80 10
7
C 2.8 10
4
Cu 5.81 " Ge 1.7 10
0
Al 3.80 " Si 4.3 10
-4
W 1.81 " Insulators
Alloys oxide glasses 10
-10
-10
-14
Cu
84
Mn
12
Ni
4
(manganin) 2.3 10
6
Lucite, Teflon < 10
-13
Cu
60
Ni
40
(constantan) 2.0 " Mica 10
-11
-10
-15
Nichrome (Ni-Cr) 1.0 " SiO
2
glass 1.3 10
-18
Not only the room-temperature values of electrical
conductivity, but also how it varies with temperature,
distinguish the various classes of materials:
Metals:
.

|
,

`
=
1

increases linearly w/T

'

Semiconductors
Insulators
: decreases strongly with T:
exp(/k
B
T)
(Arrhenius behavior)
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.2
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
MACROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION: OHMS LAW
V = IR
V: voltage drop across
medium
[V] = [J/C]
I: current through medium [A] = [C/s]
R: resistance of medium [] = [J
.
s/C
2
]
Eliminate extensive variables by substitutions:
R =
L
A
=
L
A
L: length of medium [m]
A: cross-sectional area of medium [m
2
]
: electrical conductivity of medium

]
]
]
]
]
]
1
m
=

]
]
]
]
]
]
C
2
J s m
: resistivity of medium; =
-1
Electric field, E =
dV
dL
=
V
L

]
]
]
]
]
]
J
C m
Current density, j =
I
A

]
]
]
]
]
]
C
s m
2
j = E =
dV
dL
Note similarities to Ficks first law & Fouriers law of cooling:
J = D
dc
dx
(p. 8.3)
Q
.
A
=
dT
dx
(p. 15.8)
Flux = (material property) (gradient)
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.3
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
MICROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION
= ne|z|
n: number of charge carriers per unit volume [m
-3
]
e: electronic charge, 1.602 10
-19
[C]
z: valence on carrier [dimensionless]
: mobility of carriers in medium

]
]
]
]
]
]
m
2
C

J s
=

]
]
]
]
]
]
m
2


V s
Note similarities to thermal conductivity: =
1
3
c
V
v (p. 15.9)
Holds for all materials
For materials with >1 type of charge carrier,

tot
=

i
where summation is over all types of charge carriers,
and each
i
= n
i
e|z
i
|
i
Note:
e is constant
z = 1
.

|
,

` electrons
holes
alkali ions
or 2
.

|
,

`
O
=
ions
CO
3
=
ions

'

'

The wide range of among materials

& its T-dependence
are attributable to n and .
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.4
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
ELEMENTARY BAND THEORY
Free atoms: discrete energy levels for electrons
Solids: band formation
Formation of
energy bands as
isolated carbon
atoms form a
diamond crystal.
From B. G.
Streetman, Solid
State Electronic
Devices, 2nd ed.
Prentice-
Hall,Englewood Cliffs,
1980.
Also see Callister,
Figs. 19.2 & 19.3
Atoms come together to form a solid electronic
states must shift in energy to be quantum
mechanically distinct (Pauli exclusion principle)

'

Many atoms,
similar energies

'

broadening of 1-atom levels

into energy bands
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.5
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
ELEMENTARY BAND THEORY (cont.)
For flow of electrons (current) when an E-field is applied,
e

s must have access to unoccupied electronic states

Schematic electron energy level diagrams for solids
(occupancy at absolute zero)
filled states
unoccupied states
band gap (no states)
VB
VB VB
CB
CB
CB
Metal
(e.g. Cu)
Metal
(e.g. Mg)
Semiconductor
(e.g. Si)
Insulator
(e.g. Al O )
VB: valence band
CB: conduction band
2 3
g
E
g
E
Semiconductor: E
g
< ~2.5-3 eV
Insulator: E
g
> ~2.5-3 eV
Callister, Figure 19.4
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.6
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
CARRIER CONCENTRATION
Metals:
No gap energy from applied E-field is sufficient to
move e

s
Most valence e

s are carriers 1-3 per atom

n 10
29
m
3
and n indep. of T
Undoped (intrinsic) semiconductors: e

-hole pairs
(EHPs)
Thermal energy (k
B
T) small fraction of valence e

s jump gap into CB, leaving behind a positively

charged electron vacancy (a hole) in VB:

e
-
+ h
+
[e
-
][h
+
] exp
.

|
,

`

-E
g
k
B
T
(see footnote
*
)
In VB and CB: e

s now have adjacent empty states

e

s and holes formed in pairs [e

] = [h
+
] exp
.

|
,

`
-E
g
2k
B
T
in an intrinsic semiconductor
Plot ln [e

] or ln [h
+
] vs. 1/T
linear; with slope = E
g
/2k
B
* The appearance of a Boltzmann factor here, and the representation of
electron-hole pair formation as a kind of chemical reaction, might mislead one
into thinking that the theory of electrons in solids is something that can be
treated by classical mechanics. In fact, these processes require the use of
quantum mechanics to be described accurately, even though the results
above resemble descriptions of classical processes such as diffusion and
true chemical reactions.
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.7
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
ELECTRONIC CONDUCTION in INTRINSIC SILICON
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
E-field
Hole
Free Electron
a. b.
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
E-field
Hole
Free
Electron
c.
Callister, Fig. 19.10
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.8
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
CARRIER CONCENTRATION Doped Semiconductors
(start)
Donors, e.g. P, As, or Sb in Si
III IV V
B C N
Al Si P
Ga Ge As
In Sn Sb
Extra valence e

compared to host Si atoms

This e

occupies state at E
d
just below CB in Si
little k
B
T needed to promote it into CB
exp
.

|
,

`
E
d
k
B
T
>> exp
.

|
,

`
E
g
k
B
T
Note: conduction e

created, but not a hole

( no nearby occupied states to refill the donor
state)
T-dependence of [e

]:
At RT, all donor atoms ionized donor
exhaustion
At typical dopant levels, donor e

s
overwhelm intrinsic e

s
[e
-
] indep. of T extrinsic behavior
At higher Ts, the number of intrinsically generated
e

s catches up to, and exceeds, the number of

donor atoms intrinsic behavior is observed
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.9
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
ELECTRONIC CONDUCTION in n-DOPED SILICON
Si Si
P
Si
Si Si
Si Si Si
E-field
Free Electron
Si Si
P
Si
Si Si
Si Si Si
a. b.
Si Si
P
Free
Electron
Si
Si Si
Si Si Si
E-field
c.
Callister, Fig. 19.13
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.10
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
CARRIER CONCENTRATION - Doped Semiconductors (end)
Acceptors, e.g. B, Al, Ga, or In in Si
One less valence e

than host Si atoms

Creates an empty state at E
a
just above VB in Si
into which Sis valence e

s can jump
Note: hole created in valence band but not a free e

( promoted e

has no nearby acceptor state to

enter)
T-dependence of [h
+
]:
At a T above which all acceptor states are ionized
(filled) acceptor saturation
At typical dopant levels, acceptor h
+
s
overwhelm intrinsic h
+
s
[h
+
] indep. of T (this, too, is extrinsic behavior)
At higher Ts, the number of intrinsically generated
h
+
s catches up to, and exceeds, the number of
acceptor atoms intrinsic behavior is observed
Note:
[e

][h
+
] exp
.

|
,

`
E
g
k
B
T
true for intrinsic & extrinsic
[e

] [h
+
] for extrinsic behavior
( dopants create e

s or h
+
s, but not both at once)
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.11
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
HOLE CONDUCTION in p-DOPED SILICON
Si Si Si
Si
Si Si Si
B Si
Hole
a.
Si
E-field
Si Si
Si
Si Si Si
B Si
b.
Callister, Fig. 19.13
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.12
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
MOBILITY
Metals, semiconductors: =
e
v
r
m
e
*
m
e
*: effective mass of e

: avg. distance
between collisions
v
r
: avg. e

velocity
between collisions
Metals: Low T: indep. of
T
vr indep. of T
High T:
1
T
Semicond: Low T: T
2
vr T1/2
High T:
1
T
Low T: impurity and dislocation scattering
High T: thermal scattering
Usually,
holes
<
e

Insulators: =
|z|eD
k
B
T
Conduction involves creation and transport of
charged point defects (vacancies, interstitials)
Mobility is thermally activated
Carrier concn may be intrinsic (i.e., thermally
activated), or impurities may overwhelm the
thermally-generated defects extrinsic behavior
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.13
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
NET EFFECTS
Metals: Callister, Figure 19.8

tot
=
thermal
+
impurities
+
deformation
~independent of T at cryogenic Ts
(=
-1
) =
o
+ A(T T
o
) above RT
After substitutions, =
ne
2

m
e
*
for metals
Semiconductors: Callister, Figure 19.15
ln () vs. 1/T for Si
Intrinsic
B-doped
Insulators
Mobility is thermally activated: =
|z|eD
k
B
T
Carrier concentration:
Thermally activated in intrinsic insulators
Not thermally activated in extrinsic insulators
Electrical Conductivity p. 17.14
EMSE 201 Introduction to Materials Science & Engineering 2000 Mark R. De Guire rev.4/17/00
WIEDEMANN-FRANZ RATIO,
Compares electrical to thermal conductivity:

T
= nez =
n e
2

m
e
*
for metals
Recall electronic thermal conductivity,
el
=

2
nk
B
2
T
3m
e
*
If electrons are the primary carriers of both heat and
electricity,
=
1
3

.

|
,

`
k
B
e
2
= 2.45 10
-8
V
2
K
-2
i.e., this ratio is expected to be a constant for all metals
For most pure metals,
2.2 < < 2.6 (10
-8
V
2
K
-2
)
(agreement to 10%)