KALOL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH CENTRE(KITRC) INDUSTRIAL TRIANING REPORT (7th SEM EE 2011)

SESTION 1 ABOUT VISIT TO INDUSTRY AND ITS PRODUCTION. Company name Transformers and rectifiers (India) ltd. Students name- 1.Mrinal .N.Dutt 2. Meet .S.Shah 3.Abbas Ali .G. Umatiya Training schedule-1st july to 21st july 2011 ABOUT COMPANY
Incorporated in 1994, Transformers & Rectifiers (I) Limited has consolidated its position in the Indian Transformer Industry as a manufacturer of a wide range of transformers, which conform to the quality expectations of both the domestic and the international market. An ISO 9001:2008 company today, T&R as it is more popularly known, is proud to have executed a number of prestigious orders from developed countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom.

The capability to develop world class power, distribution, furnace and specialty transformers is credited to the creation of a world class infrastructure at Changodar, near Ahmedabad, one of the leading industrialized cities of India. This facility is equipped with world class state of the art equipment and managed by a high skilled and experienced team of production personnel who consistently ensure that each and every production activity factors in an adherence to the high quality benchmarks established by the organization.

VALUE:As one of Indias leading transformer manufacturing companies, and one that is held in high esteem even by our competitors, a great deal of relevance is attached to living up to our image as a value based organization. We are an ethically responsible company, operate with transparency, validate commitment and sincerity, both vertically and horizontally across the organization and inculcate a spirit of integrity. We also try and extend these values to our business associates, be it vendors or our valued customers.

COMPANYS PRODUCTS

Power Transformer - upto 1000 MVA; 1200 kV class - Generator Transformer - Unit Auxiliary Transformer - Station Auxiliary Transformer - Power Transformer - Interconnecting Transformer (Auto Transformer) - Trackside Transformer for Railways DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER-500 kVA & above and upto 88 kVA

- Hermitically Sealed and Conservator type of construction - Stepdown Transformers

Stepup Transformers Energy Effecient Tranformers Transformers ment for Solar and Wind Applications Transformers ment for Mines Applications

Rectifier Transformer - upto 160 KA DC - Six pulse transformer with IPT - Twelve pulse with IPT (Double Deck Construction) - Bridge Connection - For Railway Traction Furnace Transformer - upto 100 MVA -Arc Furnace Transformer - Submerged Arc Furnace Transformer - Ladle Furnace Transformer - Induction Furnace Transformer - DC Arc Furnace Transformer

Specialty Transformer- Testing Transformer - Transformers having multiple secondaries

Reactors upto 765 Kv- Shunt Reactors - Series Reactors

PRODUCTION OF POWER TRANSFORMER

OVERVEIW OF COMPANYS VISIT(1/7/2011)

Production of transformers and rectifiers is done as per following process:Design of product (transformer) as per order i.e based on demand as per output is required. 2) Manufacturing of winding of a transformer ; i.e insulation of transformer 3)Core making process
1)

4)Core coil assembly 5) Pressing and ovening 6)Tanking for transformers oil 7)Testing of transformer 8) Dispatching of tranformers and assembling

Introduction to transformerA transformer is a device that transfers electrical engery from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows: VS/VP=NS/NP-(1)

Basic principles
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer
An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils

Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the crosssectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any transformer. In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, Ns/Np. Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for example, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the outgoing power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation. If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance

of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp

Transformer universal EMF equation

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms voltage Erms of the winding , and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF equation:

practical consideration of transformerIn parctical consideration of transformer it mainly considers Sections such as :1) Leakage flux 2) Energy losses This considerations are given in detail as follows;

Leakage flux-

Leakage flux of a transformer

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load.Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely handling loads that become periodically shortcircuited such as electric arc welders. Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings. Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is 5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current).

Energy losses
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%. Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%. The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence money, in a large heavily-loaded transformer; the tradeoff is in the additional initial and running cost of the superconducting design. Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the

electrical supply and a running cost; designing transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel, for the core, and thicker wire, increasing initial cost, so that there is a trade-off between initial cost and running cost. (Also see energy efficient transformer). Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from: Winding resistance Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses. Hysteresis losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.

Eddy currentFerromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores. Stray lossesLeakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next halfcycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small.

 Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heating Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.

WINDING PROCESS OF 3 PAHSE TRANSFORMER BY TRIL INDIA LTD.

After designing process winding of transformer is made frist as per given data and order as per requirement of customer. This winding are made on special machine called as winding former (Wc). Winding formers are of two types 1)-Horizontal and 2) Vertical type .Transformers and rectifer india ltd. has 15 winding machine and each of them are used for special winding making process purpose. winding of a transformer is made up of copper which are known as PAPER INSULATED COPPER CONDUCTOR (PICC). For making winding of a transformer fristly inner cylinder is made as on which the main winding resides; this cylinders are made up of material called as PRESS BOARD. Press board is fristly given a cylindrical shape by placing and rotating on winding former shaft,i.e by rolling the board its give out the

cylindrical shape. Then by using the data of winding design turns per disc is decided and by use of PICC winding turns are made on winding former. To avoid short circuiting of two winding turns insulation is provided by giving space between them by the use of SPACER are again made up of press board. Spacers are designed as per measurement given according to the design of transformer.

TYPES OF WINDING:-

1) Star windings
Its are used when a neutral connection is required for earthing or for unbalanced loads (these are usually groups of single-phase loads placed between separate phases of the supply and its neutral. Each group may not be identical and hence the system will be unbalanced).

2) Delta windings Its are most frequently used on the high voltage winding, which is usually the winding connected to the supply.The delta connection also allows third harmonic currents to circulate which improves the waveforms of the line currents and voltages on both side of the transformer.Delta windings may be slightly more expensive because the insulation has to withstand the full line-to-line voltage.

3) Zig-zag winding
Its requires each three-phase winding to be split in half. Each half is interconnected with a half-winding on another core limb. Zig-zag windings are used to suppress third harmonics or to provide a neutral connection as an earthing transformer, and to obtain a phase angle shift. Zig-zag windings are sometimes used for power rectifier circuits when high order harmonic can be nuisance and have to be minimized.

Transformer windings daigrams.

PERSONAL VISIT ON WINDING FORMER (1/7/2011)

Tranformers and recitifiers india ltd. has 15 winding former each of them given name as W1-W15. The following data gives out the report of personal visit on each of the winding former machine on date 1st july 2011.
1. Winding former machine 1 (w1) Making of inner cylindrical insulation by the use of press board. The cylindrical insulation was made for distribution transformer. It was a horizontal winding former. And over this cylinder PICC are palced which forms a winding of transformer. 2.winding former machine 2 (w2) Winding of 15 MVA , 66/11.5KV trasnformer was made. The turns /disc was rated

as 8 i.e T/D=8. Winding process was done by palcing PICC as mush winding of HV and LV of transformer. It was done by placcing the winding cables

from right to left and also from left to right. Regulated winding were also being provided for H.V. 3.Winding former machine 3(w3) Rewinding process and fault clearance of an faulty transformers winding was taken
palce.

4. Winding former machine 4(w4) It was a vertical winding former machine. Speciality of this type of winding former is that winding work can be carried out faster than the horizontal winding formers. Over here winding process of power transformer was being done and insulation using insulated paper was being carried out.

FUTHUR WINDING FORMERS W5- W15 WERE KEPT FREE ON 1/7/2011

TRANSFORMERS WINDING DESING AND TYPES USED IN COMPANY

(INDUSTRIAL VISIT 2/7/2011-3/7/2011)

TYPES OF WINDING USED-

Transformers has mainly nine different types of windings which are used basically for a pratical work. T&R company uses different types of windings for different load purpose as well as requirement is needed. INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL WINDING-

Windings

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

Cut view through transformer windings. White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red: Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: Ccore, but E-core would be similar. The black windings are made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all ends of both windings. Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also need insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary winding needed for low-power high-voltage transformers. Bottom left: Reduction of leakage inductance would lead to increase of capacitance. The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire, such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with

copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard. High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect losses. Large power transformers use multiplestranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies nonuniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings.Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture. For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve highfrequency response. This can be done by splitting up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of the other winding. This is known as a stacked type or interleaved winding. Both the primary and secondary windings on power transformers may have external connections, called taps, to intermediate points on the winding to allow selection of the voltage ratio. In distribution transformers the taps may be connected to an automatic on-load tap changer for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar. Certain transformers have the windings protected by epoxy resin. By impregnating the transformer with epoxy under a vacuum, one can replace air spaces within the windings with epoxy, thus sealing the windings and helping to prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or water. This produces transformers more suited to damp or dirty environments, but at increased manufacturing cost.

1).Layer winding-

Fig.1 Layer winding For low voltage, i.e. 600 Volt class windings, the winding technique used almost exclusively is the layer winding technique, also sometimes called helical winding or barrel winding. In this technique, the turns required for the winding are wound in one or more concentric layers connected in series, with the turns of each layer being wound side by side along the axial length of the coil until the layer is full. The conductors of the winding are insulated and so between turns there will be a minimum of two thicknesses of insulation. Between each pair of layers there will be layers of insulation material and/or an air duct. Low voltage windings will generally be wound top to bottom, bottom to top etc. using a continuous conductor, until all layers are complete. High voltage windings, i.e. above 600 Volt class, may be wound in the same way, provided the voltage between layers is not too great. To reduce the voltage stress between layers, high voltage windings are often wound in only one direction, for example, top to bottom. When the first layer of winding is complete, the winding conductor is laid across the completed layer from bottom to top and then the next layer is wound, again from top to bottom. In this way, the voltage stress between layers is halved. The conductor must, of course, have additional insulation where it crosses the winding from bottom to top.

Fig.2 Transformer with layer wound coils

2).Disc winding
In the disc winding, the required number of turns are wound in a number of horizontal discs spaced along the axial length of the coil. The conductor is usually rectangular in cross-section and the turns are wound in a radial direction, one on top of the other i.e. one turn per layer, until the required number of turns per disc has been wound.

Fig.3 Disc winding The conductor is then moved to the next disc and the process repeated until all turns have been wound. There is an air space, or duct, between each pair of discs. The disc winding requires insulation only on the conductor itself, no additional insulation is required between layers, as in the layer winding. The disc wound high voltage winding is usually wound in two halves, in order that the required voltage adjustment taps may be positioned at the electrical center of the winding. In this way the magnetic, or effective length of the winding is maintained, irrespective of which tap is used, and therefore the magnetic balance between primary and secondary windings is always close to its optimum. This is essential to maintain the short circuit strength of the winding, and reduces the axial electromagnetic forces which arise when the windings are not perfectly balanced.

Fig.4 Transformer with disc wound coils Characteristics of Layer wound coils As stated previously, the layer wound coil requires insulation between layers, in addition to the conductor insulation. The thickness of insulation required will depend upon the voltage stress between layers, and comprises one or more thicknesses of the appropriate insulation material. In practice, due to the nature of the construction of a layer wound coil, the finished coil will have several unavoidable small air pockets between turns and between layers. Many of these air pockets will become filled with resin during vacuum pressure impregnation of the coil.

Fig. 5 Equivalent circuit for Impulse voltage distribution However, it sometimes happens that some air pockets remain and it is in these air pockets that partial discharges can occur, greatly increasing the possibility of premature aging of the insulation and eventual failure. Catastrophic failure can occur within a few months of energization. Under short circuit conditions, the electromagnetic forces developed cause transformer windings to attempt to telescope. At the same time the coil end blocking is trying to prevent movement. The result is often that the turns of the winding have a tendency to slip over one another, causing turn-to turn failure, due to abrasion of the insulation as the turns rub together. A further disadvantage of the layer wound coil is its poor impulse voltage distribution between the first few turns of the winding, due to the high ground capacitance and the low series capacitance. A transformer winding forms a complex network of resistance, inductance and capacitance. As far as the impulse voltage distribution is concerned, the resistance can be ignored and at the instant of application of the impulse wave, when very high frequencies are predominant, the inductive elements become effectively infinite impedances. The whole structure therefore reduces to a capacitive network (see fig.5). Each turn of a transformer winding is insulated with a dielectric material and can be thought of as one plate of a multiple plate capacitor. In addition, the combination of dielectric material and air between each turn and ground forms further capacitive elements.

Characteristics of Disc wound coils The major advantage of the disc wound coil lies in its open construction and relative lack of insulation. For a 15kV class transformer employing a disc wound primary winding, the number of discs will typically be in the range 36 to 48, resulting in a relatively low voltage per disc. Since each disc is separated from the next by an air space, the voltage stress between discs can easily be handled by the combination of conductor insulation and air, no additional insulation being necessary. Each disc comprises a number of turns with each turn occupying one layer, i.e. one turn per layer: the voltage stress between layers is therefore the same as the voltage stress between turns and again, can easily be handled by the conductor insulation. The turns of each disc, being wound tightly together provide almost no possibility of air pockets being present within the disc. Due to the open construction of the discs, any small air pockets which may be present are readily filled with resin during vacuum pressure impregnation of the coil. A properly designed and manufactured dry-type transformer disc winding therefore displays very low values of partial discharge, typically in the range 10 to 20 picocoulombs. Unlike the layer wound coil, the disc wound coil provides good impulse voltage distribution, due to its inherently low value of ground capacitance and high series capacitance. The disc wound coil also displays excellent short circuit strength. Each disc by itself is mechanically very strong and the complete assembly of discs are held very securely in place. While the electromagnetic forces resulting from a short circuit result in a tendency, for the windings to telescope, the high voltage turns usually remain intact relative to each other. Instead, the complete disc has a tendency to distort as an assembly, with all the turns distorting by the same amount. The transformer can often continue to function, despite the distortion, until a convenient time arises for repair. Losses/heat The flow of electric current through the turns of a transformer winding causes power losses which manifest themselves in the form of heat. These losses are called load losses and are proportional to the square of the current. Obviously, it is necessary to dissipate this heat, to prevent overheating of the transformer, and in a dry-type transformer, this is achieved by the use of air spaces, or ducts, within the winding. The layer wound coil relies on vertical air ducts between layers and between windings, for cooling. Cool air enters the air ducts at the bottom of the coil and by natural convection, rises through the ducts, collecting heat on its way, then exits the coil at the top. It is essential for proper operation of the transformer that these air ducts are kept clear at all times.

The insulation required between the layers of a layer wound coil has a tendency to thermally lag the winding, impeding the dissipation of heat. The greater the operating voltage of the winding, the greater is the amount of insulation required and the greater is the lagging effect of the insulation. Some radiation also takes place from the outer surfaces of the coils. The open nature of the disc wound coil greatly improves the transfer of heat from the winding to the surrounding air. The thermal lagging effect of insulation is removed and the multiple horizontal air spaces between discs provide a large surface area for cooling by both radiation and convection.

3).HELICAL WINDINGHelical Winding is made as multi-layer windings with spaces between each turn/layer and other in the winding, Helical Winding is used for high current transformer although it has a high space Factor which gives a big size transformer but it is mechanically robust and easy to manufacture.

4).FOIL WINDINGFoil winding is made from Aluminum or copper sheets to withstand short circuit currents effectively during short duration; therefore it is used in Low voltage distribution transformers and can be used in large transformer for the same reason

5).REGULATING WINDINGRegulating winding is not a type from the windings types but only it can be considered as a connection arrangement which be made in these winding types for controlling/regulating the transformer voltage. In regulating transformer, the regulating turns be arranged in a separate winding from the Layer or Helical types, turns of each regulating step will be connected in series by means of cables outside the winding which provide a connection between each regulating step and the Tap changer. The regulating winding is preferable to be located at neutral point of a star connected winding where the potential difference between the three phases is small.

6).SPIRAL WINDING-

It is a winding with its conductor being sperated from each other by a radial spacer, so that , viewed from upwards the winding looks like , a cylindrical grid and spiral formed by conductor from the beginning to the end of winding can be clearly seen.

7).INTERLEAVED WINDING-

Its represents, in fact , a special type of a disc winding, the conductor are interleaved as shown in fig. Each winding are used in transformersnof an extra large high voltage.

8).EDGE WINDINGAn analysis of the edge effect in high-frequency transformers is performed by modeling the winding as either all-foil or wire-foil. The effects of the winding positions in the core and the winding widths on the AC resistance and leakage inductance of the transformer are investigated by using the two-dimensional finite element method (FEM). An optimal distance between the windings is found, which results in a minimum resistance for each particular frequency. It is demonstrated that the winding has the lowest AC resistance and leakage inductance when the primary and secondary have equal winding width OTHER WINDING IS 8 SHAPED LV WINDING IS DONE

Winding section T&R.

COIL PRESSING AND OVENING SECTIONBecause of the presence of moisture in the insulation used in the manufacture of the coils and also due to wide variation in the thickness of pressboard strips used to make spacers, the wound coils usually have much more than the specified values. It will be impossible to assemble the coils on the core limbs and rebuild the the top yoke of the cores unless the coil heights are brought to specified values. The following method is adopted for that purpose.

Cold pressing- The coil is placed vertically between two

clamping plates connected with 4 to 6 nos. of rods of

appropriate size with the nuts on both ends. The coil is then placed in the hydraulic coil press and is compressed by applying the load specified in the winding specification(30kg/cm2). Hot pressing- The coils are taken out and pressed in the hydraulic press in the codition by applying specified load. The coil height is checked to see if the height is coming in the drawing or not.

CORE ASSEMBLING SECTION-

1).Core StylesThere is a huge array of different core shapes, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The two most common for commercial and DIY audio equipment are the E-I "shell" core and the toroidal core, but there are many others. Ferrites in particular are moulded, and therefore have many specialised shapes to suit various applications, as well as the more traditional shapes shown below. Toroidal cores are made from a continuous strip grain oriented silicon steel, and are bonded to prevent vibration and maximise the "packing density". It is important that there are no gaps between the individual layers, which will lower the performance of the core. The sharp corners are rounded off, and they are usually coated with a suitable insulating material to prevent the primary (which is always wound on first) from contacting the core itself. I don't propose to even attempt them all, but one iron core that warrants special mention is the "C" core. These were once very popular, but have lost favour since suitable winding machines became available for toroids. They are still a very good core design, and are especially suited where an intrinsically safe transformer is required (i.e. where the primary and secondary windings are physically separated), and this technique also ensures that the inter-winding capacitance is minimal. C-cores are made by rolling a continuous strip into the desired shape, and after bonding, it is cut in half. To ensure the best possible magnetic coupling (i.e. no air

gap), the cut ends are machined and polished as a pair - it is very important to ensure that the two are properly mated, or unacceptable losses will occur. The core halves are commonly held together with steel banding, similar to that used for large transport boxes.

Figure 13.1 - C-Core Transformer A sample of ferrite cores is shown in Figure 13.2 - this is but a small indication of the selections available, and most styles are also available in many different grades to suit specific applications.

Figure 13.2 - Some Ferrite Core Styles The diagram in Figure 13.3 shows the correct way to stack an E-I transformer. Sometimes manufacturers will use 2 or 3 laminations in the same direction, then the same in the other. This cuts costs, but the transformer performance will never be as good. Alternate laminations minimise the air gap created between the E and I sections due to imperfect mating of the two. It is essential that the laminations are packed as tightly as possible so that the effects of the air gaps are minimal.

Figure 13.3 - E-I Lamination Stacking When a transformer using E-I laminations is bolted together, it is important that the bolts are insulated from the core. If not, this would allow large eddy currents to circulate through the end laminations and the bolts, reducing performance dramatically. For safety, the core should always be bonded to mains earth unless the transformer is rated as "double insulated". In order to reduce the radiated flux from an E-I transformer core, you will sometimes see a copper or brass band* wrapped around the winding and the outside of the core, as shown in Figure 13.4. This acts as a shorted turn to the leakage flux only, and greatly reduces magnetic interference to adjacent equipment. Such measures are not needed with toroidal transformers, as leakage flux is very much lower, and the core is completely enclosed by the windings.

Figure 13.4 - Flux Banded Transformer

The dimensions of E-I laminations are worked out so that the laminations can be created with no material waste (other than the

holes). The relative dimensions are shown below, and are just a ratio of the real dimensions, which will naturally be in millimetres or inches.

Figure 13.5 - Assembled Laminations and Punching Dimensions

The magnetic path length is the average for the dual path shown in the assembled lamination drawing, and is generally assumed to be This may be thought a little pessimistic, but is the commonly accepted figure. The winding window size is restricted by the punching dimensions, and it is critical that the maximum usage is made of the limited area available. Should the winding wire be too thin, there will be plenty of room, but copper losses will be excessive. Make the winding wire too thick, and the completed winding will not fit into the available space. Additional space must be allowed for the winding bobbin, and for inter-winding insulation and the final insulation layer.

2).Air GapsDC flows in the windings for any transformer that is used for "fly back" switching supplies or SET power amplifiers, to name but two. The effect is that the DC creates a magnetomotive force that is unidirectional, and this reduces the maximum AC signal that can be carried before saturation in one direction. Indeed, the DC component may cause saturation by itself, so the transformer would be rendered useless as a means of passing the AC signal without severe degradation. Even the use of a half wave rectifier will introduce an effective DC component into the windings, and these should be avoided at any significant power level (i.e. more than a few milliamps). To combat this, transformers that are subject to DC in the windings use an air gap in the core, so it is no longer a complete magnetic

circuit, but is broken by the gap. This lowers the inductance, and means that a larger core must be used because of the reduced permeability of the core material due to the gap. An air gap also increases leakage inductance because of the flux "fringing" around the gap, and resistive (copper) losses are increased as well, because more turns will be needed. It is beyond the scope of this article to cover this in great detail, but it does impose some severe restrictions on the design of transformers where DC is present. This is (IMO) one of the biggest disadvantages of the SET amplifier so popular with audiophiles, as it almost invariably leads to unacceptable compromises and equally unacceptable distortion (both harmonic and frequency). In some designs, it is possible to eliminate the DC component by using a tertiary winding that carries ... DC. If the additional winding can be made to induce a flux that is equal and opposite that of the bias current, then the quiescent flux in the transformer can be reduced to zero (where it belongs). The disadvantage with this is that it requires an extra winding, and that takes up valuable winding space on the core. It is also a difficult technique to get right, and is not often seen these days. It was a popular technique in telecommunications equipment at one time, and meant that smaller transformers could be used for the same (or better) performance. E-I transformers all have a minuscule "air gap" because of the way the laminations are assembled. With care, this can be almost be considered negligible, but it cannot be eliminated. C-cores will have their cut ends machined to minimise the effect, but again, it cannot be
eliminated entirely. The toroidal core has no air gap at all, and is therefore more efficient (magnetically speaking) - they are utterly intolerant of DC in the windings.

3). MaterialsThere is an enormous range of core materials, even within the same basic class, so I will mention only a few of the most common. All materials have some basic requirements if they are to be used with AC (for transformers, rather than solenoids or relays, which can operate with DC). The core cannot be solid and electrically conductive, or excessive eddy current will flow, heating the core and causing very high losses. Therefore, all cores use either thin metal laminations, each electrically insulated from the next, or powdered magnetic material in an insulating filler. The list below is far from exhaustive - there are a great many variations of alloys, and I have mentioned only a few of those that are in common use.

Silicon Steel-

Typically, soft (i.e. low remanence) magnetic steel will contain about 4% to 4.5% silicon, which lowers the remanence of the steel and reduces hysteresis losses. Normal mild steel, carbon steel or pure iron has quite a high remanence, and this is easily demonstrated by stroking a nail (or screwdriver) with a magnet. The nail will become magnetised, and will retain enough magnetism to enable it to pick up other nails. The addition of silicon reduces this effect, and it is very difficult to magnetise a transformer lamination strongly enough so it can pick things up. This is not to say that the remanence is zero - far from it. When a transformer is turned off, there will often be residual magnetism in the core, and when next powered on, it is common for the transformer to make noise - both toroids and E-I transformers can sometimes make a "boing" noise when power is applied. The longer a transformer is left unpowered, the lower the remanent flux, and the less likelihood there is of an excessively high inrush current. If the mains is applied when at it's peak value, inrush current is at it's lowest. Conversely, if the mains is applied at the zero crossing point, inrush current will be maximum - this is exactly the reverse of what you would logically expect. The inrush current lasts for several cycles, and is made much worse with a rectifier and filter capacitor on the output. The capacitor is a short circuit when discharged, and large capacitors will take longer to charge. Silicon steel and other metal (as opposed to ferrite) materials are normally annealed by heating and then cooling slowly after stamping and forming. This removes most of the internal mechanical stresses caused by the stamping or rolling operation(s) - these stresses reduce the magnetic properties of the material, sometimes very dramatically.

CRGO - Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Silicon Steel

Like many steels, this version is cold-rolled to obtain the required thickness and flatness needed for a transformer core. The magnetic "grain" of the steel is aligned in one direction, allowing a higher permeability than would otherwise be possible. This material is ideal for toroids and C-cores, since the grain can be aligned in the direction of magnetic flux (i.e. in a circular pattern around the core). It is less suited to E-I laminations, because the flux must travel across the "grain" at the ends of the lamination, reducing permeability.

CRNGO - Cold Rolled Non Grain Oriented Silicon Steel

Generally more suited to E-I laminations, this is essentially the same process as the CRGO, but the magnetic grain is left random, with no alignment of the magnetic domains. Although this reduces overall permeability, the effective permeability will be better with stamped laminations (as opposed to rolled, as with toroids and C-cores).

Powdered Iron
A soft ferrite ceramic material, used where there is significant DC in the winding. Powdered iron cores have relatively low permeability (about 90, maximum), and are designed for high frequency operation. These cores are most commonly used with no air-gap, and will not saturate easily. Typically used as filter chokes in switching power supplies, and as EMI (ElectroMagnetic Interference) filters - the toroid is the most common shape.

Ferrite-

Soft ferrites are the mainstay of switching power supplies, and low level high speed transformers (such as might be used for network interface cards and small switching transformers. Ferrites are available with outstanding permeability, which allows small cores with very high power capability. Flyback (a type of switchmode operation) transformers in particular are usually gapped because of the DC component in the primary current. High permeability ferrites are also very common in telecommunications and for other small audio frequency transformers where very high inductance and small size is required.

MuMetal
Named after the symbol for permeability, as one might expect, this material has an extraordinarily high permeability typically in the order of 30,000. It is commonly used as magnetic shielding for cathode ray tubes in high quality oscilloscopes, screening cans for microphone transformers, and as laminations for low level transformers. The maximum

flux density is quite low compared to other metallic materials. Apart from being relatively soft, if dropped, the magnetic properties may be adversely affected (MuMetal requires careful annealing to ensure that its magnetic properties are optimised).

3) Transformer DistortionAn ideal transformer has zero distortion, but there are zero ideal transformers. Therefore, it can be deduced that transformers do have distortion, but how much? The answer depends entirely on how the transformer is used. When supplied from a voltage source of zero ohms impedance, the real life transformer has no distortion, but again, there is no such thing as zero ohms (actually, it can be done, but yields little real benefit). Any transformer operating at low flux density, and with a low impedance source, will contribute very little distortion to the signal. As frequency decreases, and/ or operating level increases, the limits of saturation will eventually be reached in any transformer, and distortion will become a problem. This is not really an issue with mains power transformers, but is very important for valve output transformers, particularly at low frequencies.

The distortion characteristics of transformers used as valve output devices is a

complex subject, and will not be covered here. Suffice to say that the normal methods of determining the turns per volt, based on the bare minimum lowest frequency response will give unacceptably high distortion levels at low frequencies.

There various stamping used which are used know as A,B,C,D stampings of laminations.

TAPCHANGER (OLTC) IN TRANSFORMERS

A transformer tap is a connection point along a transformer winding that allows a certain number of turns to be selected. This means, a transformer with a variable turns ratio is produced, enabling voltage regulation of the output. The tap selection is made via a tap changer mechanism. There are two types of tap changers: 1- Tap changer for operation during Load (OLTC) which operates only in energized conditions. 2- Off-circuit tap changer (OCTC) which operates in deenergized conditions.

Fig. fitting of tap changer.

The tap changer and the regulating winding can be arranged in three different methods as follows: 1- Linear: used for small regulating ranges (about 10% of nominal value) and the voltage across the regulating winding will be added to the voltage across the main winding. 2- Plus-Minus: used for large regulating ranges and in this type the tapped winding is connected to the main winding via a separate plus- minus switch which permits the voltage across the tapped winding to be added or subtracted from the voltage across the main winding. 3- Coarse-fine: used when the regulation is done by two windings, one for the coarse step and one for the fine step.

Voltage considerationsIf only one tap changer is required, tap points are usually made on the high voltage, or low current, side of the winding in order to minimize the current handling requirements of the contacts. However, a transformer may include a tap changer on each winding if there are advantages to do so. For example, in power distribution networks, a large step-down transformer may have an off-load tap changer on the primary winding and an on-load tap changer on the secondary winding. The high voltage tap is set to match long term system profile on the high voltage network and is rarely changed. The low voltage tap may be requested to change positions

once or more each day, without interrupting the power delivery, to follow loading conditions on the low-voltage network. To minimize the number of windings and thus reduce the physical size of a transformer, a 'reversing' winding may be used, which is a portion of the main winding able to be connected in its opposite direction and thus oppose the voltage. Insulation requirements place the tap points at the low voltage end of the winding. This is near the star point in a star connected winding. In delta connected windings, the tappings are usually at the center of the winding. In an autotransformer, the taps are usually made between the series and common windings, or as a series 'buck-boost' section of the common winding

Tap changing
Off-circuit designs (DETC)

In low power, low voltage transformers, the tap point can take the form of a connection terminal, requiring a power lead to be disconnected by hand and connected to the new terminal. Alternatively, the process may be assisted by means of a rotary or slider switch. Since the different tap points are at different voltages, the two connections can not be made simultaneously, as this would short-circuit a number of turns in the winding and produce excessive circulating current. Consequently, the power to the device must be interrupted during the switchover event. Off-circuit or de-energized tap changing (DETC) is sometimes employed in high voltage transformer designs, although for regular use, it is only applicable to installations in which the loss of supply can be tolerated. In power distribution networks, transformers commonly include an off-circuit tap changer on the primary winding to accommodate system variations within a narrow band around the nominal rating. The tap changer will often be set just once, at the time of installation, although it may be changed later during a scheduled outage in order to accommodate a long-term change in the system voltage profile. On-load designs

A mechanical on-load tap changer (OLTC), also known as under- load tap changer (ULTC) design, changing back and forth between tap positions 2 and 3 For many power transformer applications, a supply interruption during a tap change is unacceptable, and the transformer is often fitted with a more expensive and complex on-load tap-changing (OLTC, sometimes LTC) mechanism. On-load tap changers may be generally classified as either mechanical, electronically assisted, or fully electronic.

Mechanical tap changersA mechanical tap changer physically makes the new connection before releasing the old using multiple tap selector switches, but avoids creating high circulating currents by using a diverter switch to temporarily place a large diverter impedance in series with the short-circuited turns. This technique overcomes the problems with open or short circuit taps. In a resistance type tap changer, the changeover must be made rapidly to avoid overheating of the diverter. A reactance type tap changer uses a dedicated

preventive autotransformer winding to function as the diverter impedance, and a reactance type tap changer is usually designed to sustain off-tap loading indefinitely. In a typical diverter switch powerful springs are tensioned by a low power motor (motor drive unit (MDU)), and then rapidly released to effect the tap changing operation. To reduce arcing at the contacts, the tap changer operates in a chamber filled with insulating transformer oil, or inside an SF6 vessel. Reactance-type tap changers, when operating in oil, must allow for with the additional inductive flyback generated by the autotransformer and commonly include a vacuum bottle in parallel with the diverter switch. During a tap-change operation, the flyback raises the potential between the two electrodes in the bottle, and some of the energy is dissipated in an arc discharge through the bottle instead of flashing across the diverter switch. Some arcing is unavoidable, and both the tap changer oil and the switch contacts will slowly deteriorate with use. In order to prevent contamination of the tank oil and facilitate maintenance operations, the diverter switch usually operates in a separate compartment from the main transformer tank, and often the tap selector switches will be located in the compartment as well. All of the winding taps will then be routed into the tap changer compartment through a terminal array. One possible design (flag type) of on-load mechanical tap changer is shown to the right. It commences operation at tap position 2, with load supplied directly via the right hand connection. Diverter resistor A is shortcircuited; diverter B is unused. In moving to tap 3, the following sequence occurs: 1. Switch 3 closes, an off-load operation. 2. Rotary switch turns, breaking one connection and supplying load current through diverter resistor A. 3. Rotary switch continues to turn, connecting between contacts A and B. Load now supplied via diverter resistors A and B, winding turns bridged via A and B. 4. Rotary switch continues to turn, breaking contact with diverter A. Load now supplied via diverter B alone, winding turns no longer bridged. 5. Rotary switch continues to turn, shorting diverter B. Load now supplied directly via left hand connection. Diverter A is unused. 6. Switch 2 opens, an off-load operation. The sequence is then carried out in reverse to return to tap position 2.

Thyristor-assisted tap changers-

Thyristor-assisted tap changers use thyristors to take the on-load current while the main contacts change over from one tap to the next. This prevents arcing on the main contacts and can lead to a longer service life between maintenance activities. The disadvantage is that these tap changers are more complex and require a low voltage power supply for the thyristor circuitry. They also can be more costly.

Solid state (thyristor) tap changers

These are a relatively recent development which uses thyristors both to switch the load current and to pass the load current in the steady state. Their disadvantage is that all of the non-conducting thyristors connected to the unselected taps still dissipate power due to their leakage current and they have smaller short circuit withstand capacity. This power can add up to a few kilowatts which has to be removed as heat and leads to a reduction in the overall efficiency of the transformer, in exchange for a compact design that reduces the size and weight of the tap changer device. Solid state tap changers are typically employed only on smaller power transformers. An electronic oltc circiut are latestly used by the industry which are know as Class A type , class M, D, V type.

TANKING (COOLING) OF TRANSFORMERVISIT-(6/7/2011).

High temperatures will damage the winding insulation Small transformers do not generate significant heat and are cooled by air circulation and radiation of heat. Power transformers rated up to several hundred kVA can be adequately cooled by natural convective air-cooling, sometimes assisted by fans. In larger transformers, part of the design problem is removal of heat. Some power transformers are immersed in transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings The oil is a highly refined mineral oil that remains stable at transformer operating temperature. Indoor liquid-filled transformers are required by building regulations in many jurisdictions to use a non-flammable liquid, or to be located in fireresistant rooms. Air-cooled dry transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at capacity ratings where oil-cooled construction would be more economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced building construction cost. The oil-filled tank often has radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection; some large transformers employ forced circulation of

the oil by electric pumps, aided by external fans or water-cooled heat exchangers. Oil-filled transformers undergo prolonged drying processes to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical breakdown under load. Oil-filled transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays, which detect gas evolved during internal arcing and rapidly de-energize the transformer to avert catastrophic failure. Oil-filled transformers may fail, rupture, and burn, causing power outages and losses. Installations of oilfilled transformers usually includes fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems. Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use. Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. Before 1977, even transformers that were nominally filled only with mineral oils may also have been contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls at 10-20 ppm. Since mineral oil and PCB fluid mix, maintenance equipment used for both PCB and oil-filled transformers could carry over small amounts of PCB, contaminating oil-filled transformers. Some "dry" transformers (containing no liquid) are enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas. Experimental power transformers in the 2 MVA range have been built with superconducting windings which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These are cooled by liquid nitrogen or helium.