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Computer Networks

COMPUTER NETWORKS:
Computer networks means an Interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The connection may be made of a copper wire, fiber optics, microwave or communication satellites.

REFERENCE MODEL:
There are two types of reference model. 1. OSI Reference model 2. TCP/IP Reference model OSI Reference model:

The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization. It is also called the ISO OSI(Open Systems Interconnection) Reference model because it deals with connection open systems, ie systems that are open for communication with other systems.

The OSI model has seven layers Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data link Layer Physical Layer

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Computer Networks

PHYSICAL LAYER: The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication networks. FUNCTIONS: Physical characteristics: The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium Representation of bits: The physical layer data consist of a stream of bits without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals- electrical of optical Data Rate:
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Computer Networks

The number of bits send each second. The physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long its lasts Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit level.

DATA LINK LAYER: It takes a raw transmission facility from the physical layer and transforms it into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It is responsible for node-to-node delivery It accomplishes the task by having the sender break the input data up into data frames, transmit the frames sequentially and the acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. FUNCTIONS: Physical Addressing: The data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender and/or receiver of the frames. Flow Control: The rate at which the data are absorbs by the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender. Error Control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms tp detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Access Control: The data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time

NETWORK LAYER: It is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet possibly across multiple networks. It ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final
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destination. FUNCTIONS:

Logical Addressing: It adds a header to the packet, coming from the upper layer that includes the logical address of the sender and the receiver. Routing: When independent networks are connected together to create an internetwork, the connecting devices route the packets to their final destination.

TRANSPORT LAYER: This layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of entire message. It accepts data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units, if need be, pass these to the network layer and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other side.

FUNCTIONS: Port Addressing: Transport layer header must includes a type of address called service point address(port address) for delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on the other. Flow Control: It performed end to end rather than across a single link. Error Control: Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission. Connection Control: It can be either connectionless or connection oriented

SESSION LAYER:
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Computer Networks

It allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interactions between communication devices. FUNCTIONS: Dialog control: It allows the communication between two processes to take ploace either in half-duplex or full-duplex. Synchronization: It provides a way to introduce checkpoints into a stream of data.

PRESENTATION LAYER: It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. It is responsible for translation, encryption, authentication and data compression

APPLICATION LAYER: It provides an interface for the sender as well as the receiver. It enable the user whether the hardware or browser access the data through network. SERVICES: File transfer, access and Management(FTAM) This allows a user to access files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a remote computer and to manage or control files in a remote computer.

Mail Services: It provides the basis for email forwarding and storage. Directory services: This application provides distributed database soruces and access for global information about various objects and services.
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TCP/IP Reference Model The TCP?IP model was used in the grandparent of all computer networks, the ARPANET, and its successor, the worldwide Internet. The ARPANET was a research network sponsored by the DoD. when satellite and radio networks were added later, the existing protocols had trouble interworking with them, so a new reference architecture was needed. The ability to connect multiple networks together in a seamless way one of the major design goals from the very beginning. This architecture later become known as the TCP/IP reference model.

Major Design Goals: The ability to connect multiple networks together in a seamless way. The ablility to survive loss of subnet hardware, with conversations not being broken off A flexible architecture fro supporting applications with divergent requirements, ranging from transferring files to real-time speech transmission

In TCP/IP model has four Application Layer Transport Layer Internet Layer Host-to-network Layer

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Computer Networks

INTERNET LAYER All the requirements led to the choic of a packet-switching network based on a connectionless internetwork layer. this layer is called internet layer The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP(Internet protocol) Its job is to inject IP packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion. so it is reasonable to say that the TCP/IP internet layer is very similar in functionality to the OSI network layer. TRANSPORT LAYER: It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation Two end-to-end protocols have been defined TCP(transmission Control Protocol) UDP(User Datagram Protocol) TCP: It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol. It handles flow control to make sure a fast sender and slow receiver
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Computer Networks

with more messages than it can handle. UDP: It is an unreliable, connectionless protocols. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server type request-reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery such as transmitting speech or video

APPLICATION LAYER: The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers,which are of little use to most applications. The top application layer contains all the higher-level protocols, Many other protocols are TELNET, FTP, SMTP. The other protocols have been added such as, DNS, NNTP, HTTP. TELNET: The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine and wrok there. FTP: The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another.

E-Mail: It just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized protocols was developed for it. DNS: Domain Name system for mapping host names onto their network addresses. NNTP: NNTP, the protocol used for moving news article around. HTTP:
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HTTP, the protocol used for fetching pages on the world wide web.

HOST-TO-NETWORK LAYER.: The layer below the internet layer is a great void. The TCP/IP model just points out that the hosts has to connect to the network using some protocols so it can send IP packets over it. This protocol is not defined and varies from host and network to network.

NETWORK STANDARDIZATION:

Benefits of Standardization: Allow different computers to communicate. Increase the market for products adhering to the standard

Two categories of Standards: De facto: It is a latin word, the general meaning for this from the fact. These standards are formal legal that have just happened, without any formal plan.

De jure: It is a latin word, the general meaning for this by law. These standards are formal legal standards adopted by some authorized standardization body. Two classes of standard organizations: Organizations established by treaty among national governments. Voluntary, nontreaty organizations. who s who in the telecommunication world: Companies in the united states that provide communication services to the public are called common carriers. Their offering and prices are described by a document called a tariff.
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Computer Networks

It provided telephone services to about 80 percent of Americas telephones PTT (post, Telegraph and Telephone administration): The telecommunication authority is a nationalized company, and in others it is simply a branch of the government usually known as the PTT. ITU(International Telecommunication Union): It was found in 1985, Its job was standardizing international telecommunications which in those days meant telegraphy. Main Sectors in ITU: 1. Radiocommunications sector(ITU-R) 2. Telecommunication Standardization sector(ITU-T) 3. Development sector(ITU-D) From 1956 to 1993, ITU-T was known as CCITT, its a French name: Comite Consultatif International Telegraphique at Telephonizue. Members in ITU-T; 1. National governments 2. Sector members 3. Associate members 4. Regulatory agencies Whos who in the International Standards World: ISO is a voluntary, nontreaty organization founded in 1946, with members from 89 members countries.

The procedure for ISO to adopt standards: 1. First, one of the national standards organization feels the need for an international standard in some area. 2. A working group is then formed to come up with a cd (committee Draft)
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Computer Networks

3. The CD is then circulated to all the member bodies, which get six months to criticize it. 4. If a substantial majority approves, a revised document, called a DIS (draft International Standard) is produced and circulated for comment and voting. 5. Based on the results of this round the final text of the IS (international Standard) is prepared, approved and published.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): This is the largest professional organizations in the world. It is another major player in the standars world. IEEEs 802 committee has standardized many kinds of LANs. Whos who in the Internet Standards world: The worldwide Internet has its own standardization mechanisms. Committees in Internet Standards world: 1.IAB (Internet Architecture Board) When a standard was needed, the IAB members would thrash it out and then announce the change 2. IRTF (Internet Research Task Force) This was made subsidiary to IAB. IRTF concentrates on longterm research,

3.IETF ( Internet Engineering Task Force) This dealt with short-term engineering issues.

4.Internet Society This was populated with people interested in the internet,
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