ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY UNIT I GENERAL PRINCIPLES1.1The field concept: 1.1.

1 Orthogonal coordinate systems: Although the laws of electromagnetism are invariant with coordinate system, solution of practical problems requires that the relation derived from these laws be expressed in coordinate system appropriate to the geometry of the given problems. Assume that three families of surfaces are described by u1, u2 and u3 (all are constants). When these surfaces are mutually perpendicular to one another, we have an orthogonal coordinate system. Let au1, au2 and au3 be the unit vectors in the three coordinate directions. They are called the base vectors. We have the following relations au1 x au2 = au3 au2 x au3 = au1 au3 x au1 = au2 these equations are not all independent au1.au2 = au2.au3 = au3.au1 = 0 au1.au1 = au2.au2 = au3.au3 = 1 Any vector A can be written as the sum of its components in the three perpendicular directions. A = au1Au1 + au2Au2 + au3Au3 Magnitude of A is A = |A| = ( Au1 + Au2 + Au3 )1/2 In Electromagnetics, we are often required to perform line, surface and volume integrals. In each case, we need to express the differential length- change corresponding to a differential change in one of the coordinates. Some of these coordinates like ui may not be a length and a conversion factor is needed to convert a differential change dui into a change in length dli : dli= hidui hi is called as metric coefficient.

A directed differential length change in an can be written as

dl = au1dl1 + au2dl2 + au3dl3 Or dl = au1(h1du1) + au2(h2du2) + au3(h3du3) magnitude of dl is given by dl = [(h1du1) + (h2du2) + (h3du3)]1/2 The differential volume is given by dv = h1h2h3du1du2du3 The differential area with a direction normal to the surface is given by ds = ands In general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates the differential area normal to the corresponding unit vectors are given as

ds1 = h2h3du2du3 ds2 = h3h1du3du1 ds3 = h1h2du1du2 The most commonly used orthogonal system are 1. Cartesian or rectangular coordinates 2. Cylindrical coordinates 3. Spherical coordinates

1.1.1.1 Cartesian or rectangular coordinates

Figure: Cartesian Coordinates

( u1,u2,u3 ) = ( x,y,z ) A point P in Cartesian coordinates is the intersection of the three planes specified by X = x1, y = y1, z = z1. It is a right handed system with base vectors ax, ay and az satisfying the following relations:

ax x ay = az ay x az = ax az x ax = ay

The position vector to the point P(x1,y1,z1) is OP = axx1 + ayy1 + azz1 A vector A in Cartesian coordinates is given by A = axAx + ayAy + azAz

The dot product of two vectors A and B is A.B = AxBx +AyBy + AzBz The cross product of A and B is AxB= Ax Ax Bx ay Ay By ax Az Bz

For Cartesian coordinates the metric coefficients h1 = h2 = h3 = 1. The differential length dl is given as dl = axdx + aydy +azdz The differential surface area ds is given as dsx = dydz dsy = dzdx dsz = dxdy

The differential volume dv is given as dv = dxdydz

1.1.1.2 Cylindrical coordinates

( u1,u2,u3 ) = ( r, ,z )

In cylindrical coordinates a point P(r1, 1,z1) is the intersection of a circular cylindrical surface r = r1, a half- plane containing the Z axis and making an angle = 1 with the xz plane, and a plane parallel to the xy plane at z = z1. The angle is measured from the positive x-axis and the base vector a is tangential to the cylindrical surface. It is also a right handed system having the following relations:

ax x ay = az ay x az = ax az x ax = ay A vector in cylindrical coordinates is given by A = arAr + aA + azAz For cylindrical coordinates the metric coefficients h1 = h3 = 1 and h2 = r

The differential length dl is given as dl = ardx + ardy +azdz The differential surface area ds is given as dsr = rddz ds = dzdr dsz = rdrd

Differential Volume element in Cylindrical Coordinates The differential volume dv is given as dv = dxdydz

For transforming a vector from cylindrical coordinate to Cartesian coordinates we use the following formulae:

If a vector A is given in the form

A = arAr + aA + azAz

Then the vector A can be transformed to Cartesian coordinates by expressing Ax, Ay and Az in terms of Ar, A and Az. Ax = Arcos - Asin Ay = Arsin - Acos Az = Az

The above relation can be given in a matrix form: Ax Ay Az = si n 0 co s -sin cos 0 0 0 1 A

r

A
z

For converting cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates the following formulae are used: x = rcos x = rsin z= z for conversion from Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical r = ( x +y )1/2 = tan-1 (y/x) z=z

1.1.1.3 Spherical coordinates

( u1,u2,u3 ) = ( R ,, ) A point P(R1, 1, 1 ) in spherical coordinates in spherical coordinates is specified as the intersection of the following 3 surfaces : a spherical surface centred at the origin with a radius R = R1: a right circular cone with its apex at the origin, its axis coinciding with the

+z axis and having a half angle = 1; and a half plane containing the z axis and making an angle = 1 with the xz plane. aR,a and a are the base vectors.

This system is also a right-handed system having the following relations aR x a = a a x a = aR

a x aR = a A vector in spherical coordinates is given by A = aRAR + aA + aA For spherical coordinates the metric coefficients are h1 = 1, h2 = R and h3 = Rsin The differential length dl is given as

dl = aRdR + aRd +aRsind

The differential surface area ds is given as dsR = Rsindd ds = RsinddR ds = Rdrd

Differential Volume element in Spherical Coordinates

The differential volume dv is given as

Conversion formulae

dv = RsindRdd

From spherical to Cartesian coordinates

x = Rsincos y = Rsinsin z = Rcos

From Cartesian to spherical coordinates R = ( x + y + z )1/2 = tan 1 ( x + y )1/2 z = tan 1 (y/x)

1.1.2 Gradient of a Scalar Field: We define the vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase of a scalar as the gradient of that scalar. i.e., grad V = an dV dn

grad V can also be written as V we can also write dV = (V).dl if dV can be expressed in terms of differential changes in coordinates, then dV = V dl1 + Vdl2 + V dl3 l1 l2 l3 dl = au1dl1 + au2dl2 + au3dl3 dV = V dl1 + Vdl2 + V dl3 l1 l2 l3 (au1dl1 + au2dl2 + au3dl3)

V = au1 V + au2 _V_ + au3 _V_ h1u1 h2u2 h3u3 1.1.3 Divergence of a Vector Field We define the divergence of a vector field A at a point , given as div A, as the net outward flux of A per unit volume as the volume about the point tends to zero: GLY $ OLP = Y:

A.ds

Y Divergence of a vector A is represented as div A or .A .A = __1__ h1h2h3 1.1.4 Divergence Theorem _ (h2h3A1) + _ (h1h3A2) + _ (h1h2A3) u1 u2 u3

The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the closed surface.

Proof: From Gausss law

D.ds = s

.Ddv

D.ds = Q

Q = vdv
Vol

.D = v

s D.ds = Q =

dv
v

==

.Ddv
vol

Vol

The first and the last expressions constitute the divergence theorem

s Definition

D.ds =

.Ddv

1.1.5 Curl of a Vector Field:

The curl of a vector field A, denoted by curl A or x A, is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum net circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction os the area when the area is oriented to make the net circulation maximum.

Curl A A x A
1 OLP = V: o V

an

A . dl
C

max

au1 h1 au2 h2
xA = __1__ h1h2h3
_ __

au3 h3
__

u1

u2 A2h2

u3

A1h1

A3h3

1.1.6 Stokes theorem The surface integral of the curl of a vector field over an open surface is equal to the closed line integral of the vector of along the contour bounding the surface.

( x H).ds = H.dl
s

Proof:

&RQVLGHU WKH VXUIDFH 6 ZKLFK LV EURNHQ LQWR LQFUHPHQWDO VXUIDFH RI DUHD 6 ,I ZH DSSO\ the definition of the curl to one of these incremental surfaces, then


This can also be written as

H.dl 6

= ( x H)

H.dl = ( [ +

( x H).ds = H.dl