Controlled source seismology:

Seismic refraction

Reading: Fowler p119-130

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Seismic methods and scale

Global seismology (earthquakes) Provides information on global earth structure and large scale velocity anomalies (100s to 1000s km) Difficult to image smaller scale structure, particularly away from earthquake source regions Controlled source seismology Allows higher resolution studies (meters to 100s km) Can carry out experiments away from tectonic regions

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Controlled source seismology

Set out a line or array of geophones Input a pulse of energy into the ground Record the arrival times to interpret velocity structure Seismic refraction Used to study large scale crustal layering: thickness and velocity Seismic reflection Difficult to determine accurate velocities and depths reflection
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Imaging of subsurface reflectors

Reflection and refraction

Seismic rays obey Snells Law

(just like in optics)

The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, and the angle of transmission is related to the angle of incidence through the velocity ratio.

refraction

sin i

sin e1

sin e2

Note: the transmitted energy is refracted

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reflection and refraction

Seismic rays obey Snells Law

(just like in optics)

1 1

The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, and the angle of transmission is related to the angle of incidence through the velocity ratio. But a conversion from P to S or vice versa can also occur. Still, the angles are determined by the velocity ratios.

2 2

sin i

sin e1

sin e2

sin f1

sin f 2

=p

where p is the ray parameter and is constant along each ray.

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reflection and refraction

You can see: a direct wave, reflected and transmitted waves, plus multiples

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Critical incidence
sin i

1
1

sin e2

when 2 > 1, e2 > i we can increase iP until e2 = 90 When e2 = 90 i = iC the critical angle

sin iC =

1 2

The critically refracted energy travels along the velocity interface at 2 continually refracting energy back into the upper medium at an angle iC a head wave
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Head wave
Occurs due to a low to high velocity interface Energy travels along the boundary at the higher velocity Energy is continually refracted back into the upper medium at an angle iC Provides constraints on the boundary depth e.g. Moho depth

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Head wave

You can see: a head wave, trapped surface wave, diving body wave

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
Energy from the source can reach the receiver via several paths: 1. Direct wave Energy traveling through the top layer, traveltime:
S x R

t=

A straight line passing through the origin

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
1. Direct wave 2. Reflected wave Energy reflecting off the velocity interface, traveltime:
S x R

t=
where

SC

CR

1
x2 4

SC = CR = z12 +
so

t=
or

z12 +

x2 4

12t 2 = 4 z12 + x 2
The equation of a hyperbolae
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
1. Direct wave 2. Reflected wave 3. Head wave or refracted wave Energy refracting across the interface, traveling along the underside and then back up to the surface, traveltime:
S x R

t=
with some algebra

SA

1
2 z1

AB

1
1

BR

t=

12 x + 2 2 2

ie. the equation of a straight line

t = a + bx
where the slope of the line is 1 2 and the intercept is

2 z1

12 2 2
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Two-layered model
S x R

Determining model parameters 1 determined from the slope of the direct arrival (straight line passing through the origin) 2 determined from the slope of the head wave (straight line first arrival beyond xcross) Layer thickness z1 determined from the intercept of the head wave (already knowing 1 and 2)

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Multiple-layered models
For multiple layered models we can apply the same process to determine layer thickness and velocity sequentially from the top layer to the bottom Head wave from base of layer 2:

t=

2 z1

12 x + 2 2 2 12 2 z 2 2 x + 1 2 + 2 3 2 32 3
m 1 2 z 2 x j j t = 1 2 + m m j =1 j
Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Head wave from base of layer 3:

t=

2 z1

Head wave from base of layer m:

Some problems
This analysis works for horizontal flat layers each of which produces a head wave with first arrivals in some distance window

This is not the case for: Hidden layers do not produce first arrivals Low velocity layers do not produce a head wave (need a velocity increase) Non-horizontal layers?

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Dipping layers

Dipping layers still produce head waves but the traveltimes are affected by the dip Shooting up-dip: the velocity appears greater Shooting down-dip: the velocity is reduced

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Reversing lines

shooting to a line of geophones from both ends For dipping layers layer velocities appear different for each end the dip and true velocity can be determined from the updip and down-dip velocities

For horizontal layers the traveltime curves are symmetrical

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Real Earth flat layers

Although the interfaces between real Earth layers are not perfectly flat, head waves still travel along them Analysis methods: Best-fit straight line through the points provides an average layer thickness and velocity Model the data by creating a velocity model and calculating the arrival times: Forward modeling Trade-off between layer thickness and velocity variations

Ambiguity!

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Crustal structure of the Alps

Fowler Fig 9.20

Reduced traveltime Pg PmP Pn

crust mantle

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Amplitudes reflected and transmitted

The amplitude of the reflected, transmitted and converted phases can be calculated as a function of the incidence angle using Zoeppritzs equations.

Reflection and transmission coefficients for a specific impedance contrast

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction

Summary
Controlled source seismology Provides for high resolution studies (crustal and smaller scale) Possible is non-tectonic region Reflection and refraction seismic techniques Reflection and refraction at an interface Snells Law allows calculation of ray trajectories The ray parameter is constant along a ray Incidence at the critical angle results in a head wave Refraction (Wide-angle) studies Provide layer velocity and thickness crustal structure

Physics and chemistry of the Earths interior Seismic refraction