Soil mechanics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Soil mechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics that describes the behavior of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand, and gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids, liquids, and gasses and other matter.[1][2][3][4] Along with rock mechanics, soil mechanics provides the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical engineering,[5] a subdiscipline of Civil engineering. Soil mechanics is used to analyze the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are supported on or made of soil, or structures that are buried in soils.[6] Examples applications are building and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and buried pipeline systems. Principles of soil mechanics are also used in related disciplines such as geophysical engineering, engineering geology, coastal engineering, agricultural engineering, hydrology and soil physics.

The Tower of Pisa -- an example of a problem due to deformation of soil.

This article describes the genesis and composition of soil, the distinction between pore water pressure and inter-granular effective stress, capillary action of fluids in the pore spaces, soil classification, seepage and permeability, time dependent change of volume due to squeezing water out of tiny pore spaces, also known as consolidation, shear strength and stiffness of soils. The shear strength of soils is primarily derived from friction between the particles and interlocking, which are very sensitive to the effective stress.[6] The article concludes with some examples of geotechnical engineering applications of the principles of soil mechanics such as slope stability, lateral earth pressure on retaining walls, and bearing capacity of foundations.

Slope instability issues for a temporary flood control levee in North Dakota, 2009

Earthwork in Germany

Fox Glacier, New Zealand: Soil produced and transported by intense weathering and erosion.

Genesis and composition of soils

Genesis
The primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous rock, metamorphic rock and sedimentary rock) may be broken down into small particles to create soil. Weathering mechanisms are physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering [1][2][3] Human activities such as excavation, blasting, and waste disposal, may also create soil. Over geologic time, deeply buried soils may be altered by pressure and temperature to become metamorphic or sedimentary rock, and if melted and solidified again, they would complete the geologic cycle by becoming igneous rock.[3] Physical weathering includes temperature effects, freeze and thaw of water in cracks, rain, wind, impact and other mechanisms. Chemical weathering includes dissolution of matter composing a rock and precipitGenesis and composition of soils[edit] GenesisThe primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous rock, metamorphic rock and sedimentary rock) may be broken down into small particles to create soil. Weathering mechanisms are physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering [1][2][3] Human activities such as excavation, blasting, and waste disposal, may also create soil. Over geologic

time, deeply buried soils may be altered by pressure and temperature to become metamorphic or sedimentary rock, and if melted and solidified again, they would complete the geologic cycle by becoming igneous rock.[3] Physical weathering includes temperature effects, freeze and thaw of water in cracks, rain, wind, impact and other mechanisms. Chemical weathering includes dissolution of matter composing a rock and precipitation in the form of another mineral. Clay minerals, for example can be formed by weathering of feldspar, which is the most common mineral present in igneous rock. The most common mineral constituent of silt and sand is quartz, also called silica, which has the chemical name silicon dioxide. The reason that feldspar is most common in rocks but silicon is more prevalent in soils is that feldspar is much more soluble than silica. Silt, Sand, and Gravel are basically little pieces of broken rocks. According to the Unified Soil Classification System, silt particle sizes are in the range of 0.002 mm to 0.075 mm and sand particles have sizes in the range of 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm. Gravel particles are broken pieces of rock in the size range 4.75 mm to 100 mm. Particles larger than gravel are called cobbles and boulders.[1][2]

Transport

Example soil horizons. a) top soil and colluvium b) mature residual soil c) young residual soil d) weathered rock.

Soil deposits are affected by the mechanism of transport and deposition to their location. Soils that are not transported are called residual soils -- they exist at the same location as the rock from which they were generated. Decomposed granite is a common example of a residual soil. The common mechanisms of transport are the actions of gravity, ice, water, and wind. Wind blown soils include dune sands and loess. Water carries particles of different size depending on the speed of the water, thus soils transported by water are graded according to their size. Silt and clay may settle out in a lake, and gravel and sand collect at the bottom of a river bed. Wind blown soil deposits (aeolian soils) also tend to be sorted according to their grain size. Erosion at the base of glaciers is powerful enough to pick up large rocks and boulders as well as soil; soils

dropped by melting ice can be a well graded mixture of widely varying particle sizes. Gravity on its own may also carry particles down from the top of a mountain to make a pile of soil and boulders at the base; soil deposits transported by gravity are called colluvium.[1][2] The mechanism of transport also has a major effect on the particle shape. For example, low velocity grinding in a river bed will produce rounded particles. Freshly fractured colluvium particles often have a very angular shape.

Soil composition
Soil mineralogy
Silts, sands and gravels are classified by their size, and hence they may consist of a variety of minerals. Owing to the stability of quartz compared to other rock minerals, quartz is the most common constituent of sand and silt . Mica, and feldspar are other common minerals present in sands and silts.[1] The mineral constituents of gravel may be more similar to that of the parent rock. The common clay minerals are montmorillonite or smectite, illite, and kaolinite or kaolin. These minerals tend to form in sheet or plate like structures, with length typically ranging between 10 thickness typically ranging between 10
9 7

m and 4x10 6m and

m and 2x10 6m, and they have a relatively large specific surface

area. The specific surface area (SSA) is defined as the ratio of the surface area of particles to the mass of the particles. Clay minerals typically have specific surface areas in the range of 10 to 1,000 square meters per gram of solid.[3] Due to the large surface area available for chemical, electrostatic, and van der Waals interaction, the mechanical behavior of clay minerals is very sensitive to the amount of pore fluid available and the type and amount of dissolved ions in the pore fluid.[1] The minerals of soils are predominantly formed by atoms of oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, and aluminum, organized in various crystalline forms. These elements along with calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and carbon constitute over 99 per cent of the solid mass of soils.[

Grain size distribution

Main article: Soil gradation Soils consist of a mixture of particles of different size, shape and mineralogy. Because the size of the particles obviously has a significant effect on the soil behavior, the grain size and grain size distribution are used to classify soils. The grain size distribution describes the relative proportions of particles of various sizes. The grain size is often visualized in a cumulative distribution graph which, for example, plots the percentage of particles finer than a given size as a function of size. The median grain size, D50, is the size for which 50% of the particle mass consists of finer particles. Soil behavior, especially the hydraulic conductivity, tends to be dominated by the smaller particles, hence, the term "effective size", denoted by D10, is defined as the size for which 10% of the particle mass consists of finer particles.

Sands and gravels that possess a wide range of particle sizes with a smooth distribution of particle sizes are called well graded soils. If the soil particles in a sample are predominantly in a relatively narrow range of sizes, the soil are called uniformly graded soils. If there are distinct gaps in the gradation curve, e.g., a mixture of gravel and fine sand, with no coarse sand, the soils may be called gap graded. Uniformly graded and gap graded soils are both considered to be poorly graded. There are many methods for measuring particle size distribution. The two traditional methods used in geotechnical engineering are sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis.

[edit]Sieve analysis

Sieve

The size distribution of gravel and sand particles are typically measured using sieve analysis. The formal procedure is described by ASTM (). A stack of sieves with accurately dimensioned holes between a mesh of wires is used to separate the particles into size bins. A known volume of dried soil, with clods broken down to individual particles, is put into the top of a stack of sieves arranged from coarse to fine. The stack of sieves is shaken for a standard period of time so that the particles are sorted into size bins. This method works reasonably well for particles in the sand and gravel size range. Fine particles tend to stick to each other, and hence the sieving process is not an effective method. If there are a lot of fines (silt and clay) present in the soil it may be necessary to run water through the sieves to wash the coarse particles and clods through. A variety of sieve sizes are available. The boundary between sand and silt is arbitrary. According to the Unified Soil Classification System, a #4 sieve (4 openings per inch) having 4.75mm opening size separates sand from gravel and a #200 sieve with an 0.075 mm opening separates sand from silt and clay. According to the British standard, 0.063 mm is the boundary between sand and silt, and 2 mm is the boundary between sand and gravel.[3]

[edit]Hydrometer analysis
The classification of fine-grained soils, i.e., soils that are finer than sand, is determined primarily by their Atterberg limits, not by their grain size. If it is important to determine the grain size distribution of finegrained soils, the hydrometer test may be performed. In the hydrometer tests, the soil particles are mixed with

water and shaken to produce a dilute suspension in a glass cylinder, and then the cylinder is left to sit. A hydrometer is used to measure the density of the suspension as a function of time. Clay particles may take several hours to settle past the depth of measurement of the hydrometer. Sand particles may take less than a second. Stoke's law provides the theoretical basis to calculate the relationship between sedimentation velocity and particle size. ASTM provides the detailed procedures for performing the Hydrometer test. Clay particles can be sufficiently small that they never settle because they are kept in suspension by Brownian motion, in which case they may be classified as colloids.

[edit]Mass-volume relations

A phase diagram of soil indicating the masses and volumes of air, solid, water, and voids.

There are a variety of parameters used to describe the relative proportions of air, water and solid in a soil. This section defines these parameters and some of their interrelationships.[2][6] The basic notation is as follows:

Va, Vw, and Vs represent the volumes of air, water and solids in a soil mixture; Wa, Ww, and Ws represent the weights of air, water and solids in a soil mixture; Ma, Mw, and Ms represent the masses of air, water and solids in a soil mixture;
a, w,

and

represent the densities of the constituents (air, water and solids) in a soil mixture;

Note that the weights, W, can be obtained by multiplying the mass, M, by the acceleration due to gravity, g; e.g., Ws = Msg Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of one material compared to the density of pure water (
w

1g / cm3).

Specific gravity of solids, Note that unit weights, conventionally denoted by the symbol the density instead of by the acceleration due to gravity, g. may be obtained by multiplying

Density, Bulk Density, or Wet Density, , are different names for the density of the mixture, i.e., the total mass of air, water, solids divided by the total volume of air water and solids (the mass of air is assumed to be zero for practical purposes):

Dry Density, and solids:

d,

is the mass of solids divided by the total volume of air water

Buoyant Density,

', defined as the density of the mixture minus the

density of water is useful if the soil is suberged under water:

where

is the density of water

Water Content, w is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solid. It is easily measured by weighing a sample of the soil, drying it out in an oven and re-weighing. Standard procedures are described by ASTM.

Void ratio, e, is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids:

Porosity, n, is the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume, and is related to the void ratio:

Degree of saturation, S, is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids:

From the above definitions, some useful relationships can be derived by use of basic algebra.

= gH = H

law.

The total discharg e,

s of volume per time, e.g., ft/s or m/s) is proportio nal to the intrin sic permeabi lity, K, the cross sectional area, A, and rate of pore pressure change with distance,

, and inversely proportio nal to the dyna mic

(unit

viscosity of the fluid, . The negative sign is needed because fluids flow from high pressure to low pressure. So if the change in pressure is negative (in the xdirection) then the flow will be positive (in the xdirection) . The above equation works well for a horizonta l tube, but if the

tube was inclined so that point b was a different elevation than point a, the equation would not work. The effect of elevation is accounte d for by replacing the pore pressure by exces s pore pressure,

ue define
d as:

ue = u
wgz

where z i s the depth measure d from an arbitrary

elevation reference (datum). Replacin g u by ue we obtain a more general equation for flow:

Divid ing both side s of the equa tion by A , and expr essi ng the rate of chan ge of exce ss pore pres sure

as a de rivati ve, we obtai na mor e gene ral equa tion for the appa rent velo city in the xdirec tion:

w h e r e

v
x

h a s

u n i t s

o f

v e l o c i t y

a n d

i s

c a l l e d

t h e

D a r c y

v e l o c i t y ,

o r

d i s c h a r g e

v e l

o c i t y .

T h e

s e e p a g e

v e l o c i t y

v
s x

( a

v e r a g e

v e l o c i t y

o f

f l u i d

m o l e c u l e s

t h e

p o r e s )

i s

r e l a t e d

t o

t h e

D a r c y

v e l o c i t y ,

a n d

t h e

p o r o s i t y ,

C i v

i l

E n g i n e e r s

p r e d o m i n a n t l y

w o r k

o n

r o b l e m s

t h a t

i n v o l v e

w a t e r

a n d

p r e d o

m i n a n t l y

w o r k

o n

p r o b l e m s

o n

e a r t h

i n

e a r t h s

g r a v i t y ) .

F o r

t h i s

c l a s s

p r o b l e m s ,

c i v i l

e n g i n e e r s

w i l l

o f t

e n

w r i t e

D a r c y ' s

l a w

i n

m u c h

s i m p l

e r

f o r m

[ 4 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]

v = ki
w h e r e

i s

c a l l e

p e r m e a b i l i t y ,

a n d

i s

d e f i n e d

a s

a n d

i s

c a l l e d

t h e

h y d r a u l i c

g r a d

i e n t .

T h e

h y d r a u l i c

g r a d i e n t

i s

t h e

r a t e

o f

c h a n g e

o f

t o t a l

h e a d

w i t h

d i

s t a n c e .

T h e

t o t a l

h e a d ,

a t

p o i n t

i s

d e f i n e d

a s

t h e

h e i g h t

( m e a s u r e d

r e l a t i v e

t o

t h e

d a t u m )

t o

w h i c h

w a t e

w o u l d

r a i s e

i n

p i e z o m e t e r

a t

t h a

p o i n t .

T h e

t o t a l

h e a d

i s

r e l a t e d

t h e

e x c e s s

w a t e r

p r e s s u r e

b y :

ue =

wgh

+ Constant
a n d

t h e

C o n s t a n t
i s

z e r o

i f

t h e

d a t u m

o r

h e a d

m e a s u r e m e n t

i s

c h o s e n

a t

t h e

s a m e

e l e v a t i o n

a s

t h e

o r i g i n

f o r

t h

d e p t h ,

u s e d

t o

c a l c u l a t e

u
e

e d

i t
]

T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y
V a

l u e s

o f

t h e

p e r m e a b i l i t y ,

k
,

c a n

v a r

b y

m a n y

o r d e r s

o f

m a g n i t u d e

d e p e n d

i n g

o n

t h e

s o i l

t y p e .

C l a y s

m a y

h a v e

p e r m e a b i l i t y

a s

s m a l l

a s

a b o u t

g r a v e l s

m a y

h a v e

p e r m e a b i l i t y

u p

t o

a b o u t

L a y e r i n g

a n d

h e t e r o g e n e i t y

a n d

d i s t u r b a n c e

d u r i n g

t h e

s a m p l i n g

a n d

t e s t i n g

p r o c e s s

m a k e

t h e

a c c u r a

t e

m e a s u r e m e n t

o f

s o i l

p e r m e a b i l i t y

v e r y

d i f f i c u l t

p r o b l e m .
[ 4 ]

e d i t
]

F l o w n e t s
D a r c y ' s

L a w

a p p l i e s

i n

o n e

t w o

o r

t h r e e

d i m e n s i o n s .
[ 3 ]

I n

t w o

o r

t h r e e

d i m e n s i o n s ,

s t e a d y

s t a t e

e e p a g e

i s

d e s c r i b e d

b y

L a p l a c e ' s

e q u

a t i o n .

C o m p u t e r

p r o g r a m s

a r e

a v a i l a b

l e

t o

s o l v e

t h i s

e q u a t i o n .

B u t

t r a d i

t i o n a l l y

t w o d i m e n s i o n a l

s e e p a g e

p r o

b l e m s

w e r e

s o l v e d

u s i n g

a n d

g r a p h i

c a l

p r o c e d u r e

k n o w n

c a l l e d

f l o w

n e t s

.
[ 3 ] [ 7 ] [ 1 1 ]

O n e

s e t

o f

l i n e s

i n

t h e

f l o w

n e t

a r e

i n

t h e

d i r e c t i o n

o f

t h e

w a t e r

f l o w

( f l o w

l i n e s ) ,

a n d

t h e

o t

h e r

s e t

o f

l i n e s

a r e

i n

t h e

d i r e c t i o

o f

c o n s t a n t

t o t a l

h e a d

( e q u i p o t e n t

i a l

l i n e s ) .

F l o w

n e t s

m a y

b e

u s e d

f o

e x a m p l e

t o

e s t i m a t e

t h e

q u a n t i t y

s e e p a g e

u n d e r

d a m s

a n d

s h e e t

p i l i n

g .

e d i t
]

S e e p a g e f o r c e s a n d e

r o s i o n
W h e n

t h e

s e e p a g e

v e l o c i t y

i s

g r e a t

e n o u g h ,

e r o s i o n

c a n

o c c u r

b e c a

u s e

o f

t h e

f r i c t i o n a l

d r a g

e x e r t e d

t h e

s o i l

p a r t i c l e s .

V e r t i c a l l y

u p w

a r d s

s e e p a g e

i s

s o u r c e

o f

d a n g e r

t h e

d o w n s t r e a m

s i d e

o f

s h e e t

p i l i n

a n d

b e n e a t h

t h e

t o e

o f

d a m

o r

l e

v e e .

E r o s i o n

o f

t h e

s o i l ,

k n o w n

a s

"

p i p i n g " ,

c a n

l e a d

t o

f a i l u r e

o f

t h e

s t r u c t u r e

a n d

t o

s i n k h o l e

f o r m a t i o n .

S e e p i n g

w a t e r

r e m o v e s

s o i l ,

s t a r t i n

f r o m

t h e

e x i t

p o i n t

o f

t h e

s e e p a g e

a n d

e r o s i o n

a d v a n c e s

u p g r a d i e n t .
[ 1

2 ]

T h e

t e r m

s a n d

b o i l

i s

u s e d

t o

d e s

c r i b e

t h e

a p p e a r a n c e

o f

t h e

d i s c h a r g

i n g

e n d

o f

a n

a c t i v e

s o i l

p i p e .
[ 1 3 ]

e d i t
]

S e e p a g e p r e s s u r e s
S e e p a g e

i n

u p w a r d

d i r e c t i o n

r e d u c e s

t h e

e f f e c

t i v e

s t r e s s

w i t h i n

t h e

s o i l .

W h e n

t h

w a t e r

p r e s s u r e

a t

p o i n t

i n

t h e

o i l

i s

e q u a l

t o

t h e

t o t a l

v e r t i c a l

t r e s s

a t

t h a t

p o i n t ,

t h e

e f f e c t i v e

t r e s s

i s

z e r o

a n d

t h e

s o i l

h a s

n o

f r

i c t i o n a l

r e s i s t a n c e

t o

d e f o r m a t i o n .

F o r

s u r f a c e

l a y e r ,

t h e

v e r t i c a l

e f

f e c t i v e

s t r e s s

b e c o m e s

z e r o

w i t h i n

h e

l a y e r

w h e n

t h e

u p w a r d

h y d r a u l i c

r a d i e n t

i s

e q u a l

t o

t h e

c r i t i c a l

g r a

d i e n t .
[ 7 ]

A t

z e r o

e f f e c t i v e

s t r e s s

o i l

h a s

v e r y

l i t t l e

s t r e n g t h

a n d

l a y

e r s

o f

r e l a t i v e l y

i m p e r m e a b l e

s o i l

a y

h e a v e

u p

d u e

t o

t h e

u n d e r l y i n g

w a

t e r

p r e s s u r e s .

T h e

l o s s

i n

s t r e n g t h

d u e

t o

u p w a r d

s e e p a g e

i s

c o m m o n

c o

n t r i b u t o r

t o

l e v e e

f a i l u r e s .

T h e

c o n

d i t i o n

o f

z e r o

e f f e c t i v e

s t r e s s

a s s o

c i a t e d

w i t h

u p w a r d

s e e p a g e

i s

a l s o

a l l e d

l i q u e f a c t i o n ,

q u i c k s a n d ,

o r

b o i l i n g

c o n d i t i o n .

Q u i c k s a n d

w a s

s o

n a m e d

b e c a u s e

t h e

s o i l

p a r t i c l e s

m o v

a r o u n d

a n d

a p p e a r

t o

b e

' a l i v e '

( t

h e

b i b l i c a l

m e a n i n g

o f

' q u i c k '

a s

o p p o s e d

t o

' d e a d ' ) .

( N o t e

t h a t

i t

i s

n o t

p o s s i b l e

t o

b e

' s u c k e d

d o w n '

i n

t o

q u i c k s a n d .

O n

t h e

c o n t r a r y ,

y o u

o u l d

f l o a t

w i t h

a b o u t

h a l f

y o u r

b o d y

o u t

o f

t h e

w a t e r . )
[ 1 4 ]

e d i t
]

C o n s

o l i d a t i o n : t r a n s i e n t f l o w o f w a t e r

M a i n

a r t i c l e :

C o n s o l i d a t i o n

( s o i l )

C o n s o l i d a t i o n

a n a l o g y .

T h e

i s t o n

i s

s u p p o r t e d

b y

w a t e r

u n d e r n e a t h

a n d

s p r i n g .

W h e n

l o a d

i s

a p p l i e d

t o

t h e

p i s t o n ,

w a t e r

p r e s s u r e

i n c r e a s e

t o

s u p p o r t

t h e

l o a d .

A s

t h e

w a t e r

s l

o w l y

l e a k s

t h r o u g h

t h e

s m a l l

h o l e ,

t h e

l o a d

i s

t r a n s f e r r e d

f r o m

t h e

w a t e r

p r

e s s u r e

t o

t h e

s p r i n g

f o r c e .

C o n s o l i d a t

i o n

i s

p r o c e s s

b y

w h i c h

s o i l s

d e c r

e a s e

i n

v o l u m e .

I t

o c c u r s

w h e n

s t r e s

i s

a p p l i e d

t o

s o i l

t h a t

c a u s e s

h e

s o i l

p a r t i c l e s

t o

p a c k

t o g e t h e r

o r e

t i g h t l y ,

t h e r e f o r e

r e d u c i n g

v o l u

m e .

W h e n

t h i s

o c c u r s

i n

s o i l

t h a t

i s

s a t u r a t e d

w i t h

w a t e r ,

w a t e r

w i l l

b e

s q u e e z e d

o u t

o f

t h e

s o i l .

T h e

t i m

r e q u i r e d

t o

s q u e e z e

t h e

w a t e r

o u t

o f

t h i c k

d e p o s i t

o f

c l a y e y

s o i l

l a

y e r

m i g h t

b e

y e a r s .

F o r

l a y e r

o f

a n d ,

t h e

w a t e r

m a y

b e

s q u e e z e d

o u t

m a t t e r

o f

s e c o n d s .

b u i l d i n g

f o

u n d a t i o n

o r

c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f

n e w

e m

b a n k m e n t

w i l l

c a u s e

t h e

s o i l

b e l o w

c o n s o l i d a t e

a n d

t h i s

w i l l

c a u s e

s e

t t l e m e n t

w h i c h

i n

t u r n

m a y

c a u s e

d i s

t r e s s

t o

t h e

b u i l d i n g

o r

e m b a n k m e n t .

K a r l

T e r z a g h i

d e v e l o p e d

t h e

t h e o r y

o f

c o n s o l i d a t i o n

w h i c h

e n a b l e s

p r e d i

c t i o n

o f

t h e

a m o u n t

o f

s e t t l e m e n t

a n

t h e

t i m e

r e q u i r e d

f o r

t h e

s e t t l e m e

n t

t o

o c c u r .
[ 1 5 ]

S o i l s

a r e

t e s t e d

w i

t h

a n

o e d o m e t e r

t e s t

t o

d e t e r m i n e

t h

e i r

c o m p r e s s i o n

i n d e x

a n d

c o e f f i c i e n

o f

c o n s o l i d a t i o n . W h e n

s t r e s s

i s

e m o v e d

f r o m

c o n s o l i d a t e d

s o i l ,

t h e

s o i l

w i l l

r e b o u n d ,

d r a w i n g

w a t e r

b a

c k

i n t o

t h e

p o r e s

a n d

r e g a i n i n g

s o m e

o f

t h e

v o l u m e

i t

h a d

l o s t

i n

t h e

c o

n s o l i d a t i o n

p r o c e s s .

I f

t h e

s t r e s s

r e a p p l i e d ,

t h e

s o i l

w i l l

r e c o n s o l

i d a t e

a g a i n

a l o n g

r e c o m p r e s s i o n

c u

r v e ,

d e f i n e d

b y

t h e

r e c o m p r e s s i o n

i n

d e x .

S o i l

t h a t

h a s

b e e n

c o n s o l i d a t e d

t o

l a r g e

p r e s s u r e

a n d

h a s

b e e n

s u

b s e q u e n t l y

u n l o a d e d

i s

c o n s i d e r e d

t o

b e

o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d .

T h e

m a x i m u m

p a

s t

v e r t i c a l

e f f e c t i v e

s t r e s s

i s

t e r m

e d

t h e

p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n

s t r e s s .

s o

i l

w h i c h

i s

c u r r e n t l y

e x p e r i e n c i n g

h e

m a x i m u m

p a s t

v e r t i c a l

e f f e c t i v e

t r e s s

i s

s a i d

t o

b e

n o r m a l l y

c o n s o l i

d a t e d .

T h e

o v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n

r a t i o ,

( O C R )

i s

t h e

r a t i o

o f

t h e

m a x i m u m

p a

s t

v e r t i c a l

e f f e c t i v e

s t r e s s

t o

t h e

c u r r e n t

v e r t i c a l

e f f e c t i v e

s t r e s s .

h e

O C R

i s

s i g n i f i c a n t

f o r

t w o

r e a s o n

s :

f i r s t l y ,

b e c a u s e

t h e

c o m p r e s s i b i l

i t y

o f

n o r m a l l y

c o n s o l i d a t e d

s o i l

i s

s i g n i f i c a n t l y

l a r g e r

t h a n

t h a t

f o r

o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d

s o i l ,

a n d

s e c o n d l y ,

t h e

s h e a r

b e h a v i o r

a n d

d i l a t a n c y

o f

c l a y e y

s o i l

a r e

r e l a t e d

t o

t h e

O C R

t h r o u g h

c r i t i c a l

s t a t e

s o i l

m e c h a n i c

s ;

h i g h l y

o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d

c l a y e y

s o

i l s

a r e

d i l a t a n t ,

w h i l e

n o r m a l l y

c o n

s o l i d a t e d

s o i l s

t e n d

t o

b e

c o n t r a c t i

v e .
[ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]

e d i t
]

S h e a r b e h a v i o r :

s t i f f n e s s a n d s t r e n g t h
M a i n

a r t i c l e

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h

( s o i l )

T h e

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h

a n d

s t i f f n e s s

o f

s o i l

d e t e r m i n e s

w h e t h e r

o r

n o t

s o i l

w i l l

b e

s t a b l e

o r

h o w

u c h

i t

w i l l

d e f o r m .

K n o w l e d g e

o f

t h e

s t r e n g t h

i s

n e c e s s a r y

t o

d e t e r m i n e

i f

s l o p e

w i l l

b e

s t a b l e ,

i f

b u i l

d i n g

o r

b r i d g e

m i g h t

s e t t l e

t o o

f a r

i n t o

t h e

g r o u n d ,

a n d

t h e

l i m i t i n g

p r

e s s u r e s

o n

r e t a i n i n g

w a l l .

I t

i s

m p o r t a n t

t o

d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n

f a i l

u r e

o f

s o i l

e l e m e n t

a n d

t h e

f a i l u r

o f

g e o t e c h n i c a l

s t r u c t u r e

( e . g . ,

b u i l d i n g

f o u n d a t i o n ,

s l o p e

o r

r e t

a i n i n g

w a l l ) ;

s o m e

s o i l

e l e m e n t s

m a y

r e a c h

t h e i r

p e a k

s t r e n g t h

p r i o r

t o

f a i l u r e

o f

t h e

s t r u c t u r e .

D i f f e r e n t

c r i t e r i a

c a n

b e

u s e d

t o

d e f i n e

t h e

"

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h "

a n d

t h e

" y i e l d

p o i n t

"

f o r

s o i l

e l e m e n t

f r o m

s t r e s s s

t r a i n

c u r v e .

O n e

m a y

d e f i n e

t h e

p e a k

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h

a s

t h e

p e a k

o f

s t r

e s s

s t r a i n

c u r v e ,

o r

t h e

s h e a r

s t r e n

g t h

a t

c r i t i c a l

s t a t e

a s

t h e

v a l u e

f t e r

l a r g e

s t r a i n s

w h e n

t h e

s h e a r

r e

s i s t a n c e

l e v e l s

o f f .

I f

t h e

s t r e s s s

t r a i n

c u r v e

d o e s

n o t

s t a b i l i z e

b e f o r

t h e

e n d

o f

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h

t e s t ,

t h

" s t r e n g t h "

i s

s o m e t i m e s

c o n s i d e r e d

t o

b e

t h e

s h e a r

r e s i s t a n c e

a t

1 5 %

2 0 %

s t r a i n .
[ 7 ]

T h e

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h

o f

s o i l

d e p e n d s

o n

m a n y

f a c t o r s

i n c l

u d i n g

t h e

e f f e c t i v e

s t r e s s

a n d

t h e

o i d

r a t i o . T h e

s h e a r

s t i f f n e s s

i s

i m

p o r t a n t ,

f o r

e x a m p l e ,

f o r

e v a l u a t i o n

o f

t h e

m a g n i t u d e

o f

d e f o r m a t i o n s

o f

f o u n d a t i o n s

a n d

s l o p e s

p r i o r

t o

f a i

l u r e

a n d

b e c a u s e

i t

i s

r e l a t e d

t o

t h

s h e a r

w a v e

v e l o c i t y .

T h e

s l o p e

o f

t h e

i n i t i a l ,

n e a r l y

l i n e a r ,

p o r t i o n

o f

p l o t

o f

s h e a r

s t r e s s

a s

f u n c t

i o n

o f

s h e a r

s t r a i n

i s

c a l l e d

t h e

s h

e a r

m o d u l u s

e d i t
]

F r i c t i o n , i n t e r l o

c k i n g a n d d i l a t i o n
S o i l

i s

a n

a s s e m b

l a g e

o f

p a r t i c l e s

t h a t

h a v e

l i t t l e

n o

c e m e n t a t i o n

w h i l e

r o c k

( s u c h

a s

s a n d s t o n e )

m a y

c o n s i s t

o f

a n

a s s e m b

l y

o f

p a r t i c l e s

t h a t

a r e

s t r o n g l y

c e

m e n t e d

t o g e t h e r

b y

c h e m i c a l

b o n d s .

h e

s h e a r

s t r e n g t h

o f

s o i l

i s

p r i m a r i

l y

d u e

t o

i n t e r p a r t i c l e

f r i c t i o n

a n d

t h e r e f o r e ,

t h e

s h e a r

r e s i s t a n c e

o n

p l a n e

i s

a p p r o x i m a t e l y

p r o p o r t i o n a

t o

t h e

e f f e c t i v e

n o r m a l

s t r e s s

o n

t h a t

p l a n e .
[ 3 ]

B u t

s o i l

a l s o

d e r i v e s

s i g n i f i c a n t

s h e a r

r e s i s t a n c e

f r o m

n t e r l o c k i n g

o f

g r a i n s .

I f

t h e

g r a i n s

a r e

d e n s e l y

p a c k e d ,

t h e

g r a i n s

t e n d

t o

s p r e a d

a p a r t

f r o m

e a c h

o t h e r

a s

t h e y

a r e

s u b j e c t

t o

s h e a r

s t r a i n .

T h

e x p a n s i o n

o f

t h e

p a r t i c l e

m a t r i x

u e

t o

s h e a r i n g

w a s

c a l l e d

d i l a t a n c y

b y

O s b o r n e

R e y n o l d s .
[ 1 0 ]

I f

o n e

c o n s

i d e r s

t h e

e n e r g y

r e q u i r e d

t o

s h e a r

a s s e m b l y

o f

p a r t i c l e s

t h e r e

i s

e n e

r g y

i n p u t

b y

t h e

s h e a r

f o r c e ,

T ,

m o v

i n g

d i s t a n c e ,

a n d

t h e r e

i s

a l s o

e n e r g y

i n p u t

b y

t h e

n o r m a l

f o r c e ,

N ,

a s

t h e

s a m p l e

e x p a n d s

d i s t a n c e ,

.
[ 1 0 ]

D u e

t o

t h e

e x t r a

e n e r g y

r e q u i r e

f o r

t h e

p a r t i c l e s

t o

d i l a t e

a g a i n s

t h e

c o n f i n i n g

p r e s s u r e s ,

d i l a t a n t

s o i l s

h a v e

g r e a t e r

p e a k

s t r e n g t h

h a n

c o n t r a c t i v e

s o i l s .

F u r t h e r m o r e ,

a s

d i l a t i v e

s o i l

g r a i n s

d i l a t e ,

t h e y

b e c o m e

l o o s e r

( t h e i r

v o i d

r a t i o

i n c

r e a s e s ) ,

a n d

t h e i r

r a t e

o f

d i l a t i o n

d e c r e a s e s

u n t i l

t h e y

r e a c h

c r i t i c a

v o i d

r a t i o .

C o n t r a c t i v e

s o i l s

b e c o

m e

d e n s e r

a s

t h e y

s h e a r ,

a n d

t h e i r

a t e

o f

c o n t r a c t i o n

d e c r e a s e s

u n t i l

h e y

r e a c h

c r i t i c a l

v o i d

r a t i o .

T h e

t e n d e n c y

f o r

s o i l

t o

d i l a t e

o r

c o n t r a c t

d e p e n d s

p r i m a r i l

o n

t h e

c o n f i n i n g

p r e s s u r e

a n d

t h e

v o i d

r a t i o

o f

t h e

s o i l .

T h e

r a t e

o f

d i l a t i o n

i s

h i g h

i f

t h e

c o n f i n i n g

p r

e s s u r e

i s

s m a l l

a n d

t h e

v o i d

r a t i o

s m a l l .

T h e

r a t e

o f

c o n t r a c t i o n

i s

h i g h

i f

t h e

c o n f i n i n g

p r e s s u r e

i s

l a

r g e

a n d

t h e

v o i d

r a t i o

i s

l a r g e .

A s

f i r s t

a p p r o x i m a t i o n ,

t h e

r e g i o n s

c o n t r a c t i o n

a n d

d i l a t i o n

a r e

s e p a r

a t e d

b y

t h e

c r i t i c a l

s t a t e

l i n e .

e d

i t
]

F a i l u r e c r i t e r i a
A f t e r

s o i l

r e a

c h e s

t h e

c r i t i c a l

s t a t e ,

i t

i s

n o

l o

n g e r

c o n t r a c t i n g

o r

d i l a t i n g

a n d

t h e

s h e a r

s t r e s s

o n

t h e

f a i l u r e

p l a n e

c r i t

i s

d e t e r m i n e d

b y

t h e

e f f e c t i v e

n o r m a l

s t r e s s

o n

t h e

f a i l u r e

p l a n e

'
a n d

c r i t i c a l

s t a t e

f r i c t i o n

a n g l e