Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur

The Modeling and Simulation Of Wind Energy Based Power System

Submitted By
Anup Narayan Kavimandan Soumyadip Sanyal Soumi Chaki Abhishek Dey Arnab Choudhury Under The Guidance Of Prof. Biswarup Basak Dept. of Electrical Engineering Bengal Engineering and Science University In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree Of

Bachelor of Engineering In
Electrical Engineering 2009-2010

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING BENGAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY,SHIBPUR P.O.-BOTANICAL GARDEN HOWRAH-711103

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL I do hereby forward the final report on project entitled The modeling and simulation of wind energy based power system, prepared by Anup Narayan Kavimandan, Soumyadip Sanyal, Soumi Chaki, Abhishek Dey, Arnab Choudhury under my supervision ,as partial fulfillment of requirements for the completion of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) of Bengal Engineering and Science University.

Prof. Biswarup Basak Dept. of Engineering

Electrical

Bengal Engineering and Science University.

Countersigned by:

Prof .S.K. Mallik Professor& Head Department of Electrical Engineering Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur Howrah-711103.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1.1 Electrical issues relevant to wind energy 2. Aim of the project 3. Review of previous work done on this project 4. The modeling aspects of a Wind Energy based Power System 4.1 Generator model 4.2 Wind Turbine model 4.3 Infinite Bus/Grid model 4.4 Load model 4.5 Rectifier model 4.6 Battery Charger model 4.7 Inverter model 5. Conclusion 6. Scope of future work 7. References/ Bibliography 4 5 6 11 15 15 19 21 22 28 36 48 58 59 61

The modeling and simulation of a wind energy based power system

1. Introduction
One of the most significant developments of the late 20 century was the re-emergence of the wind as a potential source of energy generation. An emerging awareness of the finiteness of earths fossil fuel reserves as well as of the adverse effects of burning those fuels for energy had caused many people to look for alternatives. The growing concern about the emissions from fossil fuel generation and increased government support has helped flourish wind power installation in India and abroad. Provision of incentives instituted by the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has made wind electricity competitive in India. India stands 5th in wind power installed capacity with a stunning 9587 MW considering data till 2008.The need of energy generation, the potential and the technological capacity were the reasons to foster the emergence of wind energy.
th

Wind is air in motion and this energy is actually derived from solar energy. About 2% of the total solar flux that reaches the earths surface is transformed into wind energy due to uneven heating of atmosphere. This kinetic energy of wind is used to gain the rotational motion of the wind turbine which is coupled with an electrical generator to supply power over a region acting as stand alone or supplying power to a grid. In an actual WECS, the issues to be considered are as follows:-

1.1 Electrical Issues relevant To Wind Energy

Power Generation Storage Interconnection & Distribution Generators Power Electronic Converters Batteries Rectifiers Inverters Power Cables Switch Gear Circuit Breakers Transformers Sensors Controller Yaw or Pitch Motors Solenoids Grounding Lightning Rods Safe paths Lighting, Heating and Motors Data Measurement & Recording Data Analysis

Control

Lightning Protection End Loads Site Monitoring

Of these only the most basic and essential parts of a WECS were included in the project work. Now, WECS can be used in two different ways: A) Isolated standalone system B) Grid connected system. Isolated standalone systems are employed to cater the needs of small townships or small scale industries located at far off places/ remote areas. Such systems are set up with a restricted objective to avoid transmission costs over long distances. Whereas, emphasis on grid connected systems is increasing with the integration of renewable energy systems into the grid, which leads to increased energy efficiency, robustness of the system, voltage support , diversification of energy sources , reduced transmission and distribution

losses and reliability of the system .As wind is one of the most promising distributed generation sources and their penetration level to the grid is also on the rise, this mode of generation is thus our centre of focus. 2. Aim of the Project : This project is concerned with the modeling and simulation of a grid connected wind-driven electricity generation system or WECS (an acronym for Wind Energy Conversion System). Our aim is to design and test a power system of 14.9 KVA capacity, operating at 440V, 20m/s base wind speed, induction generator based-wind energy system via. MATLAB simulation. The different components of a wind energy system namely the wind turbine, generator, controller system, rectifier-inverter, battery , load and other equipments including transformers, grid etc. were decided as per the scope of this project following which the design steps and modeling of the system in MATLAB simulation environment was undertaken. A Block Diagram for the overall wind energy conversion scheme:-

To further clarify the aim of this project, brief layouts of the different components are enlisted as follows: 2.2 Wind Turbine: A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy. The wind turbine is the prime mover which drives a generator. Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or vertical axis. We have considered a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine for our project. The wind turbine model used for simulation purpose in this project is a standard MATLAB 7.0.4 variable pitch wind turbine block. This block simulates an actual wind turbine whose output mechanical torque varies with the speed of the generator, the pitch of the blades and the wind velocity considered during operation. We have implemented pitch control in our system using a PI controller to control the mechanical torque output of the turbine and in turn, the total generation of the system.

2.3 Generator: Generator is one of the most important components of a power system. The efficiency of a power system is dependent to a large extent on the efficiency of the generator operating in the system. It is concerned with the generation of electrical power in order to meet the load demand on a continuous basis. In wind turbine applications they are used occasionally on large grid-connected turbines, or in conjunction with power electronic converters in variable speed wind turbines. Induction machines are now the most common type of generator on wind turbines, and they are used for other distributed generation as well. Induction machines are popular because: 1. They have a simple, rugged construction and require less maintenance, 2. They are relatively inexpensive, and 3. They may be connected and disconnected from the grid relatively simply. The generator used for this wind energy conversion system is 14.9 KVA, 3 phase, 440V Asynchronous (Induction) Generator connected to the system. Particular attention must be paid to synchronizing the generator with the network to which it is to be connected. Further details about the generator are provided in the latter half of this report. 2.4 Rectifier: Earlier AC to DC conversion was achieved using MotorGenerator set, Mercury arc-rectifiers etc. With the advent of high power thyristors presently thyristor converters are used to convert AC to DC. The thyristors are phase-controlled to get variable direct voltage. They make use of Line Commutation i.e., natural reversal of AC source voltage for commutating the thyristors conducting earlier.

The AC/DC conversion module provides the maximum power of a generator within a variable speed range with torque control. The thyristors are triggered using the cosine wave crossing technique. The three phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier derives its input from the generator output terminals and provides a controlled dc voltage at its output. With the advent of high power thyristors and high voltage D.C transmission systems, A.C output of the 3 phase generator is rectified using a bridge rectifier and then converted back to A.C using line commuted inverters. The rectifier also serves a very important purpose of charging the battery with dc at its output terminals. This is a very crucial role of a rectifier as the battery comes in very handy during shortages in generation. 2.5 Battery: The battery acts like a reservoir and stores energy when the generation is over and above the load demand. This is later on utilized to feed energy to the grid when the demand is exceeds the generation of the WECS. This conversion also facilitates the operation of a backup/reserve battery charger module which taps the DC power during normal operation only to supply the grid later during unsatisfactory wind turbine generator operation i.e. when the generator fails to produce the required power.

As can be seen in the block diagram of the system, it is connected to the dc link between the Rectifier and the Inverter. The battery being considered in this project is a standard BP100-12 12V battery manufactured by B.B Battery Co. ltd. As per load current requirement up to 21 of these batteries can be connected in series and additional units

may also be included, which is exactly what is done in real systems. 2.6 Inverter: Although, we have a battery in our system which acts as a source of DC power, but it still has to be converted into AC for it to be of any use, as only then can it be synchronized with the bus and can successfully feed power to the grid. The inverter performs exactly this, very important, function of converting DC power into AC power at desired output voltage and frequency. We have incorporated a three phase Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) connected in bridge configuration. It would receive dc power from the Rectifierbattery side and convert it into 3-phase AC power before supplying it to the grid through a step-up transformer. We have used SPWM technique to control the output voltage of the inverter. For more information on the inverter regarding its working principles, you can refer to the section on inverter in the latter half of the report. 2.7 Step-up Transformer: The battery used in our system has a nominal voltage of 12 Volts. As a result, the line-to-line voltage at the inverter output is around 10 Volts. So, obviously this voltage should be stepped up to a level same as the grid before we can connect the inverter output to the grid. Here, we have used a three phase 2.5 KVA, 10/440V, 50 Hz delta/delta transformer. In the process, we faced quiet a number of interesting problems which we have discussed in the inverter section and brought to light in the report.

2.8 Load:

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Every power system is designed keeping the load hat it has to cater, in consideration. The entire system has been modeled so as to be able to successfully supply power to the load on it. It is the prime consumer of electrical power and it also dictates the working of the system in a number of ways. For e.g., whether the battery will charge or discharge depends on the charging current as well as on the load conditions. We have implemented a three phase load in the system which can be changed as per the requirement. We have also made an attempt to perform load fluctuations on our system in the running condition using a combination of an IDEAL SWITCH and a MANUAL SWITCH. We have placed the switches in such a manner so that even after cutting the load, it remains balanced. This process is known as LOAD MANAGEMENT.

3 Review of Previous Work done on this Project We had a preliminary knowledge about the project topic from the Renewable Energy Classes we had in the 7th
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Semester. Since our task was to carry on this project from where our seniors had left in the previous year, we gathered substantial idea related to the scope of this project. Though the idea we got from that project report was mostly irrelevant to the project work carried out by us, the battery model designing procedure as mentioned previously by our seniors, formed the basis of our battery design in MATLAB. Using the report as reference, the project was initiated by first and foremost modeling a DC generator setup for the wind turbine. On satisfactory simulation and testing, which helped us in familiarizing with MATLAB tools and techniques, we decided on introducing an Asynchronous Machine as wind turbine generator. The first Induction Generator modeled worked well for its motoring operation but on transition to generation mode, there were severe oscillations, disturbances and computational problems owing to the mathematical framework of the model. Heres a brief insight into our first Induction Generator model: Simulink Representation of the Induction Generator:

1. The input to the turbine is wind speed. The p.u

generator speed is feedback from the speed

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computation block to the turbine. Pitch angle is assumed constant till now.

2. As we want to make it work as a generator, so we pass the turbine output torque (pu) through a negative gain block to get the actual generator torque.

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3. above mathematical model is used for the per phase electromagnetic torque computation and the per phase power output. It is then computed for all the 3 phases with the voltages of the individual phases equal in magnitude and displaced 120 degrees apart, as is the case in an infinite busbar.
4. It is important to point out here that this model of

induction machine is working satisfactorily in the motoring mode of operation. But as soon as it is trying to enter the generator mode and the slip becomes one , there are severe oscillations and disturbances in the system due to which it is unable to operate smoothly as a generator , as is also evident in the performance characteristics of the generator. 5. We obtained the following performance characteristics from our
first Induction generator model on simulating it in MATLAB:

3-PHASE TORQUE:

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3-PHASE POWER:

P.U GENERATOR SPEED:

SLIP:

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4. The modeling aspects of a Wind Energy based Power System 4.1 GENERATOR MODEL:

The Asynchronous Machine block used here is a built-in model of MATLAB 7.0.4 present in the Simpower Systems of Simulink Library. It operates in either generator or motor mode. The mode of operation is dictated by the sign of the mechanical torque: If Tm is positive, the machine acts as a motor. If Tm is negative, the machine acts as a generator.

The electrical part of the machine is represented by a fourth-order state-space model and the mechanical part by a second-order system. All electrical variables and parameters are referred to the stator. This is indicated by the prime signs in the machine equations given below. All stator and
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rotor quantities are in the arbitrary two-axis reference frame (dq frame).

Inputs and Outputs:

Tm

The Simulink input of the block is the mechanical torque at the machine's shaft. When the input is a positive Simulink signal, the asynchronous machine behaves as a motor. When the input is a negative signal, the asynchronous machine behaves as a generator. The input signal is in p.u as we have used the p.u mask here i.e., Asynchronous Machine p.u Units. M The Simulink output of the block is a vector containing 21 signals. We have demultiplexed these signals by using the Bus Selector block provided in the Simulink library. Depending on the type of mask we use, the units are in SI, or in p.u. In our project we have used it in p.u mask.

GENERATOR SPECIFICATIONS:
ITEMS TYPE OF GENERATOR SPECIFICATIONS SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR

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KVA RATING RATED VOLTAGE RATED SPEED RATED POWER NO. OF POLES GENERATOR INERTIA RATED TORQUE STATOR RESISTANCE STATOR REACTANCE ROTOR RESISTANCE ROTOR REACTANCE MAGNETISING REACTANCE

14.9 KVA 440 V 1000 sync R.P.M 11 KW @ 0.86 p.f 6 25 kg-m2 105 N-m 1.41 ohm i.e., 0.1085 p.u 2.3 ohm i.e., 0.502 p.u 135 ohm i.e., 0.2124 p.u referred to stator 2.3 ohm i.e., 0.502 p.u 98.4 ohm i.e., 7.573 p.u

WINDING CONNECTION

DELTA

WORKING OF A 3-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINE CONNECTED TO THE GRID We have chosen a 3-phase Squirrel Cage Induction Machine coupled to a Wind Turbine with Delta connected winding as our Generator for the Wind energy conversion system. The generator is connected to an infinite bus/Grid and is catering the load connected to it. There are various aspects associated with the generation of wind energy which need to highlighted at this juncture to make the report meaningful and understandable for the reader : 1. With a constant wind speed and without pitch control, if there is an increase in load demand, it will be observed that the bus current and the load current would increase, even though the generator output current remains constant. The reason is that as the load demand increases, the load current also increases. But since the wind speed is constant (the input mechanical torque to the generator also remains constant), so the generator output current remains constant. As such, the excess load current is taken from the grid/bus.

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2. There is no effect of increase in load demand on the rotor speed or the electromagnetic torque developed when the pitch angle became zero, as then the turbine output torque cannot increase further unless the wind speed increases.

3.

It should be understood at this point of time that if there is no load then the generator would feed all the power to the bus only. But that would be useless. Hence we employ pitch control to control the input mechanical torque from the turbine to the generator and in turn the power generated by the generator.

4. Further, as long as the load demand is below the power rating of the generator, we use pitch control so that the generator develops as much power as is required by the load. Otherwise, what will happen is that the excess power will be fed into the bus, which is useless.

5. But once the load demand exceeds the generator rating, pitch control is of no use as the turbine has to develop the rated torque (i.e., the blade angle is set to zero where the mechanical torque developed by the turbine is maximum) and the load draws the excess power from the bus.

6.

Turbine can only supply active power. So, the load will draw all the reactive power from the bus. Further, Induction Generator draws reactive power (Magnetizing
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VAR) from the bus. It cannot supply reactive VAR to the bus or the load.

7. If the machine is generating more than the requirement of the load, the excess active power will be fed into the bus. So, there must be a perfect balance of power (both active & reactive) between the bus, load and the generator. Thus,

ACTIVE POWER generated by the machine= LOAD ACTIVE POWER + BUS ACTIVE POWER (as the excess generation by the machine is fed into the bus).

REACTIVE POWER CONSUMPTION BY THE LOAD + MAGNETISING CURRENT (VAR) OF THE GENERATOR = REACTIVE POWER DELIVERED BY THE BUS.

A three phase V-I Measurement block has been placed at the output terminals of the generator to compute the line voltages and line currents coming out from the generator, which can also be viewed in the scope. Another measurement block present in the SimPower System of the Simulink Library by the name of Discrete 3phase Power has also been used. This measurement block
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takes the generator line voltages and currents as its inputs and enables us in computing the instantaneous power and mean power produced by the generator at its output. 4.2 WIND TURBINE MODEL:

This block implements a variable pitch wind turbine model.

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The first input is the generator speed in per unit of the base generator speed i.e., we feedback the rotor p.u speed to the wind turbine model. The second input is the blade pitch angle (beta) in degrees. It is a controlled input fed through a pitch controller scheme implemented using a PI controller. The PI controller will track the error signal as long as the generator output power is not equal to the reference power (which controls the generation). The third input is the wind speed in m/s.

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The performance coefficient Cp of the turbine is the mechanical output power of the turbine divided by wind power and a function of wind speed, rotational speed, and pitch angle (beta).Cp reaches its maximum value at zero beta. The output is the torque applied to the generator shaft in per unit of the generator rating. 4.3 INFINITE BUS/GRID MODEL:

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We have prepared the model of the grid/infinite bus using three balanced AC voltage sources connected in star and shifted in phase by 120 degrees. The phase to phase voltage of the bus is taken as 440 volts so that the phase to neutral is 440/1.732. The frequency is set at 50 Hz and so it acts as an infinite bus. It has a three phase V-I Measurement block in series which gives us the phase to neutral voltages and currents entering

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the bus. These currents and voltages are then fed to a 3phase instantaneous Active & Reactive Power block which gives us the Bus Active power and Reactive power flowing in the bus. The generator output terminals are connected to connect to the grid. 4.4 LOAD MODEL:

The figure above shows the three phase load block. We implemented this block using series R-L branches where we have the freedom to feed the values of resistance R and
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inductance L and vary the load. We have prepared 3 such sets and connected them in series in each phase. LOAD MANAGEMENT: In physical/real systems there is always some fluctuation in the load on the system. We have made a sincere attempt here to implement this feature in our system using a combination of IDEAL SWITCH and MANUAL SWITCH. Using this feature we can have load fluctuation in the system even in the running condition. However, Care has been taken to ensure that even after increasing/decreasing load, it remains balanced. This is because our project involves study of balanced currents. We have placed the switches to perform load fluctuations on the system in the running condition in such a manner so that even after cutting the load, it remains balanced. When the manual switch is at 0, the load is in the system. When the manual switch is at 1, that part of the load gets shorted in all the 3 phases. A power computation block has been used which gives us the load power i.e., 3-phase instantaneous active and reactive power.

OVERALL SYSTEM LAYOUT: The following figure describes our final system with all the components present

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1. Load block 2. Turbine block 3. Generator block 4. Infinite bus/grid block 5. Inverter block 6. Step up Transformer 7. PI Controller block

SYSTEM IN OPERATING CONDITION: In order to give the reader a feel of the working of the system and its operation, we have presented three different cases:
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CASE 1: Load Demand is greater than the generator output. Load parameters: R= 8 ohm/phase, L=0.02 H/phase. Load Demand (3-phase active power) = 14.97 KW Generator Output = 13 KW So, the excess load power is supplied by the bus which is 1.968 KW. Load voltage = 440/1.732 V/phase. Mechanical Torque= 1.091 p.u ; Pitch angle = 1.361 degrees

Snap shot of the system after it has settled at the operating point CASE 2:
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Load Demand is smaller than the generator output. Load parameters: R= 12 ohm/phase, L=0.03 H/phase. Load Demand (3-phase active power) = 9.979 KW Generator Output = 13 KW So, the excess power generated by the generator is fed to the bus which is 3.021 KW. Load voltage = 440/1.732 V/phase. Mechanical Torque= 1.091 p.u; Pitch angle = 1.361 degrees

Snap shot of the system after it has settled at the operating point

CASE 3: Load Demand is equal to the generator output. Load parameters: R= 7.5 ohm/phase, L=0.03 H/phase. Load Demand (3-phase active power) = 10.01 KW
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Generator Output = 10.01 KW Bus Power = 0.96 W (almost equal to zero, as expected, as the entire load demand is taken care of by the generator alone). Load voltage = 440/1.732 V/phase. Mechanical Torque= 0.8055 p.u; Pitch angle = 14.06 degrees.

Snap shot of the system after it has settled at the operating point

4.5 RECTIFIER MODEL

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The Rectifier model has been realized using a 3-phase Universal Bridge Simulink block. The scheme of modeling is as follows: The Universal Bridge block implements a universal three-phase power converter that consists of up to six power switches connected in a bridge configuration. Thyristors have been chosen as the power switches and a 3 arm converter configuration is adopted using the universal bridge block properties.

A 3-phase full controlled thyristorized bridge rectifier schematic The Universal Bridge model as available in Matlab 7.04:-

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The gating signals for all six SCRs i.e. Thyristors have been modeled using the logic as mentioned below:
Proper arm voltage say -Vy for the Q1 gate Pulses
Gating Pulse Signal to the Thyristor Q1 gate.

The Relational Operator block performs the specified comparison of its two inputs. The inputs to this block are a reference control voltage corresponding to the desired firing angle and a phase voltage (Vy a cosine wave) as per the thyristor meant for this gate pulse. The control voltage can be set between the peaks of the phase voltage. The rectangular output of the relational operator i.e. comparator is the fed to a monostable multivibrator. The monostable output is subsequently logically operated (ANDed) with a train of pulses from a pulse generator model used in here. The pulse generator has been configured so as to produce pulses over the period equal to the width of the monostable output. The outputs of the logic block are the required triggering pulses for the thyristor. It is important to mention that the triggering of thyristors is based on the Cosine Wave Triggering Technique.

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The control voltage was set at 115 V corresponding to 60 degree firing angle. A more resolved view shows the pulses clearly.

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Heres the proposed rectifier model design:-

A resistive load has been placed across the Rectifier Output to account for current even during no load condition for simulating this model.

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The rectifier output and the gate pulses for all six thyristors of the bridge rectifier as observed using a scope across the terminals:-

EXPECTED RECTIFIER BATTERY MODEL

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The figure above outlines the model of the rectifier and the battery which we had set out to achieve. It tries to implement the firing angle control scheme using which we could have been able to control the firing angle to be used in the rectifier by sensing the charging current. But due to some computational problems in the battery this could not be achieved and we could not connect this scheme in our system.

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4.6 THE BATTERY CHARGER MODEL The Wind Energy Conversion System scheme requires a battery charger system for a convenient and consistent power supply to the load which stores energy during normal operation of the wind generator while supplying to the load directly and feeding the stored energy to the load through a inverter/rectifier circuit when generator is not operating satisfactorily or it develops a technical snag. The development of the battery charger model started from the observation of terminal voltage vs. state of charge, discharge characteristics of a 12 V DC standard battery. The coordinates are extracted from the given plot to obtain state of charge values and their corresponding terminal voltage values. The values were then entered in a tabular form on MS Excel and subjected to the non-linear least square curve fitting method using Excels inbuilt solver add-in. The constants A, C, D were modified during the execution of the solver to the curve fitted values for the values of X (state of charge) and E (terminal voltage) obtained from the standard characteristics of the 12V battery. The A,C,D values were then used in Kinetic Battery Model where it is assumed that terminal voltage E varies with state of charge(SOC) as follows, E=E0 + A*X + C*X/ (D-X) Where, E0 = Extrapolated voltage at zero current of a fully charged battery. A= Initial linear variation of internal battery voltage with SOC C, D= Parameters reflecting the sharpness of end of discharge voltage drop (commonly called the knee of curve). A smaller value of C will give a sharper knee of curve.
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D indicates the maximum discharge capacity at a particular discharging current. X= Normalized capacity removed from the battery at a given discharge current: X= (qout / qmax (I)) * qmax qmax (I) = Capacity of the battery at each discharge current I. qmax = Maximum ampere-hour capacity, it corresponds to the charge that may be obtained when a battery is discharged at a very slow rate i.e. I 0 A qout = Amount of charge that has been removed by a certain point (in discharging from a full battery.) GIVEN PLOT OF TERMINAL VOLTAGE VS. SOC FOR DIFFERENT DISCHARGING CURRENTS:-

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Terminal voltage vs. State of Charge data table: For 9.5 amps discharging current: discharging current:
X 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 20 22.5 25 30 32.5 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 62.5 65 67.5 70 72.5 75 E(volts) 12 11.98 11.94 11.92 11.9 11.89 11.88 11.87 11.86 11.85 11.83 11.82 11.8 11.78 11.77 11.75 11.74 11.73 11.72 11.68 11.67 11.61 11.55 11.48 11.42 11.36 11.26 X 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 37.5 40 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 62.5 65 67.5 70 72.5 75 77.5 80 82.5 85 87.5

For 17.5 amps

For 9.5 A the constants are For 17.5 A the constants are A= -0.01179 C= -0.5195 D= -46.7329

E(volts) 12 11.99 11.98 11.92 11.86 11.8 11.74 11.72 11.7 11.69 11.67 11.64 11.62 11.61 11.6 11.59 11.56 11.54 11.48 11.42 11.35 11.29 11.23 11.19 11.16 11.1 11.07 10.97 10.89

A= -0.01325 C= -0.20515 D= -3.32264

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For 25 Amps discharging current:

X 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 37.5 40 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 62.5 65 67.5 70 72.5 75 77.5 80 82.5 E(volts) 12 11.99 11.98 11.92 11.86 11.8 11.74 11.72 11.7 11.69 11.67 11.64 11.62 11.61 11.6 11.59 11.56 11.54 11.48 11.42 11.35 11.29 11.26 11.2 10.97 10.83 10.58

For 60 Amps discharging current:

X 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 62.5 65 67.5 E(volts) 12 12 11.93 11.87 11.82 11.78 11.74 11.71 11.66 11.61 11.55 11.5 11.44 11.4 11.36 11.32 11.29 11.22 11.14 11.08 10.95 10.75 10.49 10.23 10 9.61 9.35 8.83

For 25 A constants are A= -0.0156 C= -0.33595 D= -8.08126

For 60 A constants are A= -0.06748 C= -3.52479 D= -41.9415

Next we wrote a small MATLAB program to plot the very discharge characteristics (E vs. X) using the formula. The
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program for plotting discharge characteristics for 60 Amps is like, X=0:5:80; For I= 1:17, V (I) = 12-0.06748* X (I) +3.52479*X (I)/ (41.9415-X (I)); End; Plot(X, V) Comparison of given plot & plot obtained from manipulating the equation: For 9.5 Ampere Discharging Current

Red- given plot For 17.5 Ampere Discharging Current

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Green- Given plot For 25 Ampere Discharging Current

Indigo- Given plot For 60 Ampere Discharging Current

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Pink- Given plot

Modeling of the Battery Model:-

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Low battery cut -off

Over charging cutoff

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E=E0 + A*X + C*X/ (D-X) This equation forms the basis of our battery model. The Battery subsystem model has two voltage terminals (+ve

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terminal and -ve terminal) and four output terminals viz. (i) Display of State of Charge (ii) Low voltage Signal (iii)Display of voltage (iv)High voltage Signal Since the above equation is based on the State of Charge(x), so we are using a Current Measurement block to get the current flowing through the circuit. By convention, State of Charge is always taken to be positive. So we use an absolute value block to get the absolute value of the current and then we use an integrator to obtain the flow of charge (qout). This qout is multiplied by maximum ampere-hour capacity (qmax) which is taken to be 120 for this standard Kinetic Battery Model. Now to get the State of Charge(x) we divide the product by capacity of battery at a particular discharge current (qmax (I) ) which is fed from a Look up Table with previously obtained values from a standard characteristics curve of the battery we are working with. X= (qout / qmax (I)) * qmax So from the obtained State of Charge one branch is sent for display to output terminal and the other is sent for computation towards A,C and D. The Lookup Table block computes an approximation to some function y= f(x) given data vectors x and y. The values of the constants A, C and D are dependent upon values of current only. So look up tables are used to feed values of A, C and D depending on the values of current. After that necessary mathematical calculation blocks are applied wherever necessary to realize the above mathematical equation. E=E0 + A*X + C*X/ (D-X); The equation implemented so far is actually true for discharging condition. For charging condition the sign of the constants A and C needs to be changed. So sign blocks are fed to the multiplier block which sensing the sign of current (which depends on charging or discharging) changes the sign of the product of A*X and C*X .Then E is obtained by summing up all three components of the basic equation.

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Now to derive two signals (one for high voltage and another for low voltage signal) two relational operator blocks are used. The voltage signal now available is of simulink level, therefore, to use it on simpower blocks, an arrangement of voltage controlled source and current measurement block is employed. For different values of current drawn, the minimum cutoff voltage as permitted by the battery specifications can be derived using an appropriate look-up table. The output of this look-up table is then fed to a relational operator to be compared with the value of output voltage for the battery. In case the battery output voltage goes below the minimum voltage as furnished by the look-up table (corresponding to the output current), the relational block output triggers an ideal switch to break the circuit. Likewise, it is necessary to break the circuit once the output voltage crosses-over the permitted charge capacity (which is 110% of the rated voltage for the battery) in order to avoid over-charging. So, another relational operator is used to compare the output voltage with the maximum voltage capacity i.e. 13.2V in this case. When the output voltage exceeds this value, another ideal switch is triggered to break the circuit. A DC source model along with a resistance branch is connected across the battery terminals to simulate and test the operation of this battery model. On varying the voltage magnitude of the DC voltage source (above and below the 12V standard capacity voltage), the battery is simulated for charging and discharging conditions. The results obtained from this simulation were as expected. As observed during simulation, the battery model worked satisfactorily when simulated as an isolated system. But, it showed computational errors once this model was connected to the rectifier model.

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The following plots are taken from the working Battery Model:-

Terminal Voltage vs. State of Charge plot depicts the charging characteristics of the battery model; Charging current = 16.7 Amps*

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Terminal Voltage vs. State of Charge plot depicts the discharge characteristics of the battery model; Discharging current= 10.21 Amps* *The battery considered for this model, as stated before, has a standard output voltage of 12 V. 4.7 INVERTER: Inverters are used to convert dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency. Some of the important applications of inverters are in variable frequency ac drives, standby aircraft and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), high voltage dc transmission and many more. Presently, our main purpose of using the inverters here is to convert the dc power from the battery into 3 phase ac power. This power is used to meet the load demands under emergency conditions when there is either a shortage of generation or that of the wind. Since the voltage level of this ac power is around 10 V so we have also used a step-up transformer to boost up this voltage before connecting it to the grid. As our inverter is fed by a small dc source with negligible internal impedance, so it is known as a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI). The inverter that we have used here is an IGBT-DIODE based inverter connected in the bridge configuration. It has three bridge arms and hence the name Bridge Inverter. Its configuration is as shown below:

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To implement this bridge inverter, we have used the Universal Bridge model present in the Simpower Systems of the Simulink Library in Matlab 7.0.4 .

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The Inverter Simulink Model

One of the most promising means of controlling the inverter output voltage is to incorporate time ratio control within the inverter using a suitable modulation scheme i.e., by suitably controlling the ON-OFF time of the switches we control the output voltage. These inverters are called Pulse width modulated inverters. The advantages of this method of control are: 1. We can control the output voltage without significantly adding to the total number of components of the inverter.
2. It is also possible to substantially eliminate the lower

order harmonic frequencies. The higher order harmonics can be filtered by the load inductance itself.So, without using a filter we are able to reduce the harmonics in the load current to a large extent. Pulse width modulation techniques can be of the following types:

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a) Single Pulse Modulation (SPM) b) Symmetrical multiple pulse modulation (SMM) c) Multiple Pulse Modulation with selective reduction of harmonics (MMSR) d) Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM). Out of these 4 methods, the one we have employed is the last one i.e., SPWM technique. So we would discuss this method of inverter output voltage control in detail.

SPWM TECHNIQUE:
The gate pulse requirement of the inverter bridge is taken care of using a PWM Generator

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The frequency of carrier triangular signal= 2 KHz The fundamental frequency of the output voltage of the controlled bridge= 50Hz Modulation index is used to control the amplitude of the fundamental component of the output voltage and is equal to 0.5.

As the modulating signal is generated internally, it means the reference modulating signal is a three
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phase sinusoidal wave. The triangular carrier signal is compared with the sinusoidal modulating signal. When the modulating signal is greater than the carrier pulse 1 is high (1) and pulse 2 is low

The gating pulses generated by the PWM generator of our system.

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1 .5 1 0 .5 0 0 1 .5 1 0 .5 0 0 1 .5 1 0 .5 0 0 1 .5 1 0 .5 0 0 1 .5 1 0 .5 0 0 1 .5 1 0 .5 0 0

0 0 .0 5

0 1 .0

0 1 .0 5

0 2 .0

0 2 .0 5

0 3 .0

0 0 .0 5

0 1 .0

0 1 .0 5

0 2 .0

0 2 .0 5

0 3 .0

0 0 .0 5

0 1 .0

0 1 .0 5

0 2 .0

0 2 .0 5

0 3 .0

0 0 .0 5

0 1 .0

0 1 .0 5

0 2 .0

0 2 .0 5

0 3 .0

0 0 .0 5

0 1 .0

0 1 .0 5

0 2 .0

0 2 .0 5

0 3 .0

0 0 .0 5

0 1 .0

0 1 .0 5

0 2 .0

0 2 .0 5

0 3 .0

Six pulses are generated for a three-arm bridge. Pulses 1, 3, and 5 fire the upper devices of the first, second, and third arms. Pulses 2, 4, and 6 fire the lower devices.

INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

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Substantial amount of harmonic content is introduced in the output voltage, particularly at low values of the output voltage. Some important points for the evaluation of harmonic content (Assuming that there are m triangular pulses per cycle of sinusoidal voltage): a) mth harmonic and its integral multiples are not present. b) The predominant harmonics are (2m-1) and (2m+1). The other lower amplitude harmonics are (m-2),(m+2), (3m-1),(3m+1),(4m-1) and (4m+1). c) Increasing m will shift the dominant harmonic to a higher frequency d) Harmonic content is higher at lower values of modulation index. Before connecting it to the grid:
10 0 -10 0 10 0 -10 0 10 0 -10 0 0.05 Ia 0 -0.05 0 0.05 Ib 0 -0.05 0 0.05 Ic 0 -0.05 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 tim e ,t---------------> 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 tim e ,t---------------> 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 tim e ,t---------------> 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 tim e ,t---------------> 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.005 0.01 0.015 Va

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02 0.025 0.03 time ,t--------------->

0.035

0.04

0.045

0.05

Vb

0.02 0.025 0.03 tim e ,t--------------->

0.035

0.04

0.045

0.05

Vc

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As can be seen, the inverter output voltages are two stepped square wave. The triplen harmonics can be considered to be absent and will be zero. The inverter output current wave is four stepped square wave and it also contains several harmonics. After connecting it to the grid through a step up transformer The output voltage waveforms present at the primary and secondary of the step up transformer have been shown in the figure below. After connecting the inverter output voltage to the grid, it tries to synchronize with the bus voltage. Moreover, it must also be noted that the carrier frequency has been taken as 2KHz.So high frequency components are also introduced in the inverter output voltage. It is due to this reason that the voltages and currents appearing at the output of the inverter have ripples (due to high frequency components) over-riding their sinusoidal fundamental components. So before connecting the inverter to the grid, we must ensure that the inverter output voltages are free from these high frequency components and are synchronized with the grid, otherwise circulating currents would flow. So, we have connected chokes (inductive coils) in series with the step up transformer and the grid. These chokes bypass the high frequency components.

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20 0 -2 0 1 .95 x 10 1 0 -1 1.95 1 .96 1.9 7 1 .98 1 .99 IN V E R TE R O U TP U T C U R R E N T 2 2 .0 1

4

1.955

1 .9 6

1.9 6 5 1.9 7 1 .9 75 IN V E R TE R O U TP U T V O L TA G E

1 .98

1. 985

1. 99

1 00 0 0 -1 000 1. 95 1 .9 55 1.9 6 1 .96 5 1 .97 1.97 5 1.9 8 1.9 85 1 .99

IN V E R TE R O U TP U T V O L TA G E (A F TE R S TE P P IN G U P )

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But the high frequency components have still not been completely eliminated. As a result, the inverter output current has some high frequency components which goes into the grid and get reflected in the grid current. Its effects can clearly be seen in the bus current waveform above. This results in a poor quality of power being obtained from the bus. Moreover, there are Wide fluctuations in the bus power as well. So, this is the problem that needs to be dealt with as far as the working of the inverter is concerned. Infact attempts are being made to improve the quality of power obtained from the inverter and are a hot topic of research nowadays in the power and control sector.

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5. CONCLUSION: We faced a number of problems while modeling the generator and the other components in our system in the Simulink window of the MATLAB. It was a learning process for us. So, we felt the need to discuss those issues and sum up our critical observations: 1. Phase sequence of the supply is important. It should be kept such that the stator magnetic field rotates in the same direction as the turbine. Otherwise, the generator will not rotate and no torque will be produced. 2. As per the convention, if the mechanical torque from the turbine is positive, the machine works as a Motor otherwise as a Generator. 3. Computation of bus power, load power and the generator output power is very important. It reveals whether the model is working properly, as expected or not.
4.

It must also be noted that, if the load is purely resistive, then phase current (= line current) will be in phase with the phase voltages. But the phase voltages itself lag the line voltages by 30 degrees i.e., the phase/line currents will lag the line voltages by 30 degrees. Hence if we try to compute the power consumption by the load using line currents and line voltages as the inputs, we found that even for a resistive load, there was
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significant reactive power consumption. Hence we should feed the phase values of current & voltages into the power computation blocks to get the correct result. 5. When the machine settles at an operating point, there will be a perfect balance of power, both active and reactive, between the generator, bus and the load. 6. We took a single monoshot pulse having a width of 500 micro-secs. The pulse train had a pulse width of 80% i.e., 8 micro-secs for a period of 10 micro-secs. This was done to ensure that all the thyristors can easily latch. But still we found in the rectifier output waveform that a few thyristors missed their firing pulses. To overcome this problem, we increased the inductance of the load. Ad we could see from the output voltage waveform that all the thyristors were getting triggered. 6. SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK:1. The battery model, we have made here, is working properly in isolated condition. But when it is connected in the whole system it was given some computational error. This can possibly be attributed to the fact that it is completely a mathematical model built by implementing this mathematical equation:E=E0+A*X+C*X/ (D-X). As the battery model is mathematical, so when it is connected to the Rectifier, which is a component model, it possibly lacks the intelligence to judge the signals coming from the rectifier, work on it, and then decide whether to charge or discharge. It showed erroneous values of voltages. So, ultimately we could not link the battery in our final system. So this is one area which needs to be looked upon and rectified in future.
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2. Since the battery could not be connected in the ultimate model, so there is also the scope to connect it making use of the firing angle control scheme described in the Rectifierbattery section. That would enable us to control the firing angle to be used in the rectifier by sensing the charging current. 3. It must be noted that, although the frequency of the inverter output voltage is kept at 50 Hz (same as the grid), but that alone does not ensure that the zero crossings of the reference sinusoidal signals used in SPWM are same as the zero crossings of the sine waves of the grid. So there may be a chance of a mismatch between the two voltages which would later on create problems in synchronizing them. To avoid this problem, what we can do is to take the sine waves from the grid and use it for SPWM. This is exactly what is done in real/physical systems nowadays and can be implemented in future in this system. 4. We have connected chokes (inductive coils) in series with the step up transformer and the grid. These chokes bypass the high frequency components coming from the inverter. Even though they largely reduce the ripples but it could not be completely eliminated and the inverter output shows signs of still carrying them with it. This results in a poor quality of power being obtained from the inverter. Moreover, there are Wide fluctuations in the bus power as well. So, this is the problem that needs to be dealt with as far as the working of the inverter is concerned. 5. Though the inverter has been connected to the system and is almost working satisfactorily but there is still a lot of scope in properly synchronizing the inverter output voltages with the grid and locking them in phase with each other. That would not only improve the stability of the system but also go a long way improving the quality of the bus power as well.

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6. We have not incorporated Reactive Power Compensation Scheme in our Project. There is enough scope to work on it in future, whereby Compensation capacitor can be used under two different schemes: i)NO-LOAD COMPENSATION : It refers to the condition when the capacitor , or rather capacitor bank, fully compensates the reactive power absorption of the Induction Generator under no-load condition, and ii)FULL-LOAD COMPENSATION : It refers to the condition when the capacitor fully compensates the reactive power absorption of the generator under full-load condition. 7.For a grid connected transmission/distribution network, it must comply with certain GRID CODES i.e., fault ride through capability, reactive power range, voltage control, frequency range and frequency control etc. So, this aspect of our system can also be looked into in the future. 8. During network fault, there is a risk that the induction generator Will lose stability during the fault. So the TRANSIENT INSTABILITY aspect of a power system , which has not been analyzed here, can also be studied in the future.

7. References

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1) Wind Energy Explained-Theory, Design & Application - By J.F. Manwell, J.G. McGown, A.L. Rogers. 2) Wikipedia and Google Search were helpful for looking up trivial issues. 3) A Course in Electrical Machine Design - By AK Sawhney. 4) The official website of B.B.Battery Company Ltd. USA for BP-100 12V battery specifications. 5) Thyristorised Power Controllers - By GK Dubey, SR Doradla, A Joshi, RMK Sinha.

THANK YOU

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