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Chemistry Paper 1 (100 Marks): 30 MCQ, 40 marks Short Questions, 30 marks Structured Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Kinetic Particle Theory Measurement and Experimental Techniques Purification and Separation Elements, Compounds, Mixtures Atomic Structure Ionic and Covalent Bonding Metallic Bonding Writing Chemical Equations The Mole Chemical Calculations Acids and Bases Salts Oxidation and Reduction The Periodic Table The Atmosphere and Environment

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 1

Kinetic Particle Theory

Kinetic Particle Theory States that all matter is made up of tiny particles that are in constant, random motion
Solid Close together in an orderly arrangement Strong Vibrations about fixed positions increase as temperature increase. Less Energy High (Particles close together) Liquid Close together in a disorderly arrangement Strong Vibrations and movement throughout the liquid Gas Far apart in a random arrangement. None Vibrations and movement anywhere. More Energy Low (Particles are far apart)

Arrangement of the particles Forces between particles Movement

Energy of the particles Density

High (Particles close together)

Energy Changes

Sublimation
Liquid Gas It occurs because particles at the surface of the solid have enough energy to break away from the solid and escape as a gas and particles of the liquid are too weak to remain in that state. Some examples of substances that sublime include iodine and ammonium chloride. Substances that sublime can change from gaseous state to solid state through condensation. Dry ice is useful as it can keep food cold and change into a gas without leaving liquid behind.

1. 2. 3.

4.

Between points A and B, the substance is completely solid. The substance starts melting at Point B. The temperature is called the melting point. Between points B and C, the substance is melting and a mixture of solid and liquid is present. Temperature is constant as heat energy is taken to weaken and break the bonds. The substance has completely melted at point C and became a liquid.

1.

2.

3.

Between points A and B, substance is completely liquid. It starts melting at point B which is the freezing / melting point. Between points B and C, the substance is freezing and a mixture of liquid and solid is present. Temperature is constant as heat energy is given out to make bonds between the particles. The substance has completely turned into a solid at C.

Diffusion
There are 2 definitions for diffusion: Diffusion is a process in which particles travel from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is a process whereby particles move freely to fill up any available space. The 2 main factors affecting the rate of diffusion: Relative Molecular Mass (the smaller the faster the speed) Temperature (the higher the faster the speed of the molecules Faster diffusion).

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 2

Measurement and Experimental Techniques

Measurement Time Temperature Mass Volume SI unit and other units Seconds (s); minute (min) and hour (h) o Kelvin (K); degree Celsius ( C) Kilogram (kg), Grams (g) Cubic Metre (cm3) Litre Milimetre Instruments used Stopwatch and Stopclock

Mercury thermometer, clinical thermometer. Beam Balance, electronic balance Beaker: Used to estimate the volume of a liquid. Measuring Cylinder: More accurate than beaker Burette: Measures up to nearest cm3. Accurately measures volume of liquid to 0.1cm3 3 Pipette: Scale marked in 0.1cm divisions. Accurately measures fixed volumes of liquids. How a gas is collected depends on its physical properties, namely: Solubility: How soluble the gas is in water. Density: How dense the gas is compared to air.

Collecting Gases and Measuring Techniques

Method Solubility Density Example

More dense than air

Carbon Dioxide Hydrogen Chloride

Gas is more soluble in water

Less dense than air

Ammonia Gas

Gas is insoluble or slightly soluble in water

Gas is less dense than air

Hydrogen Oxygen Methane

A gas can be dried by passing it through a drying agent. Some examples of drying agents include: Concentrated sulphuric acid Quicklime (Calcium Oxide) Fused calcium chloride In the apparatus used, the tube introducing the gas is immersed in the acid whereas the exiting tube is not. Concentrated sulphuric acid is used to dry most gases including chlorine and hydrogen chloride. However, it cannot be used to dry ammonia as it reacts with ammonia. Instead, Quicklime is used (placed above the moist ammonia). Fused calcium chloride can also be used to dry most gases. A gas syringe is used to measure the volume of a gas. The gas is pushed in fully to expel any gas in the syringe. As the gas from an external source enters the syringe, it pushes the plunger outwards.

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 3

Purification and Separation

Chapter 3.1: Testing for Purity
Pure Substance Fixed melting points Impure Substance The impurities will lower the melting point. The greater the amount of impurities, the lower the melting point of the substance. Cause melting to take place over a range of temperatures1. Impurities will increase the boiling point of a substance. The greater the amount of impurities, the higher the boiling point of the substance. 1 If pressure acting on a liquid is increased, the boiling point is raised. Likewise, if pressure is decreased, boiling point will fall. Two or more spots seen on the chromatogram.

Chapter 3.2: Filtration

Separate a mixture of a solid and a liquid. Upon filtration, the solid that remains on the filter paper is called the residue. The liquid that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate. It should be done several times to ensure that the entire solid is separated from the liquid.

Fixed boiling points

1 single spot seen on the chromatogram

Chapter 3.3: Crystallization

Obtain a solid from the solution. Solution is heated to make it saturated. The saturated solution is allowed to cool. As it cools, crystals of solid appear. They are pure as impurities remain dissolved in the solution. The crystals are filtered off and dried by pressing them on sheets of filter paper.

Chapter 3.4: Evaporation to Dryness

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Easiest method to separate the soluble solid from the liquid. It is used to recover the solid particles from the mixture. This process is done through evaporation. As some compounds may decompose or break down on heating, crystallization is thus recommended. In addition, when all the water is removed during evaporation, any soluble impurities present will be left on the crystals. This process is mainly used only if the solid has a high melting point or not volatile (e.g. sea water to recover salt)

Chapter 3.5: Chromatography

Used to separate and identify small amounts of substances that are dissolved in solvents. Paper Chromatography can be used to separate and identify dyes in coloured ink. Drops of the unknown ink and known dyes are placed side by side on a piece of filter paper. The paper is suspended into a solvent. As the solvent moves up, the ink dissolves in the solvent and move up the paper at different speeds and distances. The pattern of spots is called a chromatogram. A locating agent can be sprayed on the paper to make colourless spots visible. Every substance has an unique Rf value which can be calculated from

Chapter 3.6: Use of a Separating Funnel

Liquids that do not dissolve in each other are described as immiscible. (e.g. oil and water) These liquids cannot mix with each other due to their differences in density. To separate immiscible liquids, a separating funnel is used. The denser liquid is collected first till it is all collected and the remainder is collected into another beaker. Liquids like ethanol and water that mixes together completely to form a solution are miscible. A technique called fractional distillation can be used to separate them.

Distance travelled by substance R f Value Distance travelled by solvent

The Rf value of a substance does not change as long as chromatography is carried out under the same conditions (temperature, solvent, etc).

Chapter 3.7: Simple and Fractional Distillation Simple Distillation

Diagram

Fractional Distillation

Similarities in Apparatus

Uses

Steps taken

Purpose / Things to note Smoothen boiling and prevent bubbling. The bulb of the thermometer must be at the opening of the condenser to measure the temperature of the vapour as it leaves the distilling flask. Condenser It should be slanted to allow the gas to touch the walls of the condenser easily and transfer heat to the cold water, allowing the vapour to cool down. If it is horizontal, the chances of the vapour condensing are limited. Cold running water should also be allowed to run from the bottom of the condenser and leave from the top. Water in / The water in is placed at the end to distribute the water to ensure that the solvent is Water out entirely condensed to get back the solvent and to prevent the vapour from escaping. 1 Beaker If the distillate collected is volatile , place it into a bigger container filled with ice. Fractioning Only in Fractional Distillation. Used to allow the liquid with higher boiling point to condense Column and fall back whereas the liquid with lower boiling point will rise up. Recover a solvent from a non-volatile source. Separate mixtures whose boiling points differ less Separate mixtures of liquids where boiling points differ at than 25. Used in industries to obtain nitrogen, argon least 25C. and oxygen, or used to separate mixtures of liquids like crude oil. 1. Solution boils; water vaporizes and enters the 4. Solution boils; solution vaporizes and enters the condenser. condenser. 2. Water vapour is cooled in the condenser and 5. The liquid with lower boiling point will become changes back into pure water which is collected in vapour and rise up. The liquid with higher boiling the beaker. point will condense in the fractioning column. 3. The salt solution becomes more concentrated and 6. When all the liquid that has the lower boiling eventually becomes salt if distillation is allowed to point condenses, the temperature will rise carry on. quickly and allow the other liquid to rise over.
100 Temperature 80 60 40 20 0 Time Temperature 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Time

Apparatus Boiling Chips Thermometer

Temperature recorded

The distillate collected can become gas easily with a very low boiling point (can be below room temperature).

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 4

Elements, Compounds, Mixtures

Chapter 3.1: Elements 1. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical methods. 2. The 3 most abundant element: Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum 3. Can be classified by state (2 liquids mercury and bromine) or as metals, non-metals and metalloids. a. Metals (except graphite) conduct electricity b. Non metals include noble gases c. Metalloids conduct electricity when impure / heated. E.g. Silicon. 4. Elements are made up of atoms or molecules. a. An atom is the smallest unit of an element. b. A molecule is a group of 2 or more atoms chemically joined together (represented by a chemical formula) Chapter 3.3: Mixtures 1. A mixture consists of 2 or more substances not chemically combined together. 2. It may contain different elements (brass alloy), different compounds (sea water, milk) or both elements and compounds (air). 3. Differences between a pure compound and mixture: Pure Compound Has a fixed percentage by mass of each element. Has a chemical formula. Cannot be separated into its elements by physical means. Has a fixed melting point and a fixed boiling point. Mixture Has a variable composition by mass of each element. Does not have a chemical formula. Can be easily be separated into its components by physical means. Has a variable melting and boiling point. Chapter 3.2: Compounds 1. A compound is a substance containing 2 or more elements chemically joined together. 2. It has different properties from its constituent elements. 3. Made up of molecules or ions 4. A compound is made up of different elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio. 5. An ion is an atom or a group of atoms with an electrical charge. Many compounds which consist of ions, known as ionic compounds and most are solids.

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 5

Atomic Structure
Chapter 5.1: Nuclear Model of an Atom Particle Proton Neutron Electron Symbol p n e Relative Mass 1 1 1/1840 Charge +1 0 -1 Chapter 5.2: Isotopes 1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons. 2. Most elements consist of a mixture of isotopes. 3. Isotopes have slightly different physical properties but have identical chemical properties as they have the same number and arrangement of electrons. 4. The relative atomic mass of can be calculated by adding the atomic mass with percentage of each isotope. 5. Isotopes can be used for heart pacemakers.

1. Proton Number: Number of protons in an atom. 2. Nucleon Number: Number of protons and neutrons in an atom. 3. Number of electrons = Number of protons. Therefore atoms are neutral (no charge) 4. An atom can be described in symbol form. Chapter 5.3: Arranging Electrons in Atoms

1. The furthest shell from the nucleus is called the outermost shell. The electrons in this shell are known as the valence electrons. 2. The valence electrons are used to form chemical bonds. 3. Metals have few valence electrons whereas non-metals have many.

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 6 8

Ionic, Covalent, Metallic Bonding and Ionic Equations

Chapter 6.1: Ionic Bonding 8. Ionic bonds are formed in compounds of metals and non-metals. 9. They are formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming ions. 10. These ions are held together by electrostatic attraction, called ionic bonding. The larger the difference of charges of the 2 ions, the stronger the bond. 11. First, the metallic atom loses electrons to become a positive ion. Then the non-metallic atom gains electrons to become a negative ion. The 2 ions are then held together by ionic bonds. 12. Ionic compounds consist of large numbers of ions in a giant ionic structure. 13. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points as the ionic bonds are strong. 14. They only conduct electricity in the liquid state as the ions can move and carry the current. 15. They are often soluble in water. 16. Examples are Sodium Chloride and Magnesium Chloride. Chapter 6.2: Covalent Bonding 1. Covalent bonds are formed between atoms of nonmetals. 2. 2 atoms form a covalent bond by sharing electrons from their valence shell. 3. Some atoms form 2 covalent bonds with another atom known as double bonds. In such a bond, 4 electrons are shared. 4. The covalent bonds between the atoms in the bromine molecules are strong, however there are only weak forces in between the molecules. 5. Covalent compounds have a simple or giant molecular structure. 6. Simple molecular structure: Have low melting and boiling points due to weak van der vaals forces between the molecules. They do not conduct electricity as there are no free ions/electrons and are usually insoluble in water. 7. Giant covalent structure: Consist of huge number of atoms joined together by covalent bonding. Have high melting / boiling points as they are joined together by strong covalent bonds. Examples are diamond/graphite (carbon) and silicon oxide.

Chapter 6.3: Noble Gases 1. Noble Gases like oxygen, helium and argon are unreactive. 2. They do not form chemical bonds with other atoms as they have a stable electronic configuration. 3. Atoms of other elements form chemical bonds so that they attain the electronic configuration of a noble gas. Chapter 8: Writing Ionic Equations

Chapter 7.1: Metallic Bonding 1. A metal consists of an orderly arrangement of positive metal ions surrounded by a sea of electrons which are free to move about. 2. The metallic bond is the force of attraction between the positive metal ions and negative-charged electrons. 3. Metals have a giant lattice structure. 4. Solid metals are good electrical conductors as they have freemoving electrons. 5. Metals are malleable as the layers of atoms can easily slide over each other. AgNO3

1. Steps in writing an ionic equation: Write a balanced chemical equation of the reaction including the state symbols. Identify ionic compounds that are soluble in water. Rewrite the chemical equation in terms of ions. Note: Only break down those which are aqueous state into positive and negative. For example: Cancel out the spectator ions. Write out the ionic equation. 2. We need ionic equations as a reaction may have a lot of ions but only 2 ions react. 3. Acids are covalent but form ions in water.

Ag+

NO3-

H2SO4

2H+

(SO4)2-

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 9 10

The Mole and Chemical Calculations

Chapter 9.1: The Mole Concept

Chapter 9.2: Calculating Empirical and Molecular Formula There are several steps in finding the empirical formula of a compound: 1. Find Percentage, Mass or Relative Atomic Mass 2. Find no. of moles (Mass, Percentage or Ar / Molar Mass) 3. Divide by smallest ratio Notes: If the relative molecular mass of a compound is known, the molecular formula can be found from the empirical formula. Leave all answers in 3 sig. fig. When divided by smallest ratio if it has a decimal of 0.5, multiply by 2. If it is 0.33 or 0.67, multiply by 3. If not, round up or down. Chapter 10.2: Limiting Reactants A balanced chemical equation is used to calculate the exact amounts of reactants used up and products formed using its molar ratio. The reactant that is completely used up is known as the limiting reactant. It determines or limits the amount of product formed. Once the limiting reactant is used up, the reaction stops. Always use the limiting reactant to calculate the product. Chapter 10.4: Acid-Base Titration Calculations

Chapter 10.1: Calculations from Chemical Equations A balanced chemical equation gives us the mole ratio of the reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, there are 3 steps to calculating the mass of a substance reacted or produced: 1. Convert whatever mass is given of a substance into the number of mole. 2. Compare the mole ratio from equation. 3. Convert the number of mole to the mass of the substance you want to find. Calculating volume of reacting gases from chemical equations: Since 1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p., the volume of gas is proportional to the number of moles of the gas. Note: 1dm3 = 1000cm3 Chapter 10.3: Calculation on Concentration of Solutions The concentration of a solution gives the amount of solute in 1dm3 of solution. It can be expressed in g/cm3 or mol/dm3 (molar concentration).

(Conc. of A)(Vol of A) No. of mol of A (Conc. of B)(Vol of B) No. of mol of B

Chapter 10.5: Percentage Yield and Percentage Purity Actual Yield Percentage Yield = 100% Theroetical Yield Mass of pure substance Percentage Purity = 100% Mass of sample

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 11 12

Acids, Bases and Salts

Chapter 11.1: Acids 6. An acid is a compound which produces hydrogen ions when dissolve in water. 7. A strong acid is one that is completely ionized in water (HCl) whereas a weak acid is only partially ionized in water. 8. Acids have a sour taste, turn blue litmus red. 9. Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen 10. Acid + Base Salt + Water 11. Acid + Carbonate Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide Chapter 11.3: Alkalis 12. Alkalis are bases which are soluble in water. 13. Alkalis produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. 14. Alkalis are slippery, turn blue litmus red. 15. Alkali reactions are similar to base reactions. Chapter 11.5: Oxides 23. Oxides are compounds of oxygen with another element (Copper oxide, sulfur dioxide). 24. There are 4 types of oxides: a. Acidic Oxides: Oxides of non metals, dissolve in water to give acids. React with bases to give a salt and water. b. Amphoteric Oxides: Oxides of metals react with both acids and alkalis to form salt and water. (Zinc Oxides / Aluminum Oxide) c. Basic Oxides: Oxides of metals, some dissolve in water to give alkalis. React with acids to give a salt and water. d. Neutral Oxides: Oxides of non metals, do not react with acids or bases. (Carbon Oxide, Nitrogen Oxide, Water) Chapter 12.1: Salts 16. A salt is obtained from an acid when the hydrogen ion of an acid is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion. 17. Solubility Table:
Carbonates / Hydroxides Chlorides Nitrates Sulfates Soluble Salts SPA (Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium) All the rest All All the rest Insoluble Salts All the rest Lead/Silver None Barium, Calcium, Lead

Chapter 11.2: Bases 1. Bases are metal oxides and hydroxides. 2. A base is a substance which reacts with an acid to give a salt and water only known as neutralization. 3. Base + Acid Salt + Water 4. Base + Ammonium Salts Salt + Water + Ammonia 5. Soluble bases are also known as alkalis.

Chapter 11.4: Neutralization 16. The reaction between an acid and a base is called neutralization. 17. In such a reaction, the hydrogen ions from the acid react with the hydroxide ions of the alkali. 18. Neutralization reactions are exothermic. Chapter 11.6: Indications and pH 19. Indicators are substance that turn to different colours in acidic and alkali solutions. 20. The pH of a solution is a number that shows how acidic or alkaline a solution is. A neutral solution like ethanol has a pH of 7, an acidic solution like hydrochloric acid has pH of 2 and an alkaline solution like sodium hydroxide has a pH of 14. 21. The lesser the pH, the more acidic, the higher the pH , the more alkaline the substance is. 22. Farmers neutralize excess acidity in the soil by adding calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) to the soil. Chapter 12.2: Preparation of Salts 23. Insoluble salts are prepared using the precipitation method (mix 2 soluble salts and obtain insoluble salt through filtration) 24. Soluble salts are prepared using acid + excess metal/insoluble metal oxide/carbonate (if reacting with insoluble substance) or titration (acid + alkali reaction). 25. After getting the salt solution, saturated it and then let it crystallize to get the salt.

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 13

Redox (Oxidation and Reduction)

Chapter 13.1: Oxidation 2. The term oxidation represents a substance that is oxidized if it: Gain Oxygen Loses hydrogen Loses electrons Increases its oxidation state after a reaction. Chapter 13.3: Oxidation State 3. Oxidation Increase in Oxidation State The oxidation state is the charge an atom of an element would have if it existed as an ion in a compound even if it is covalently bonded. To work out the oxidation state of an atom, the following rules are applied: The oxidation state of a free element is zero. The oxidation state of a simple ion is the same as the charge on the ion. The oxidation states of the atoms present in the formula of a compound add up to zero. The total of the oxidation states of the atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. To determine the oxidation state of atoms in a compound, find the charges of each atom in the compound. That is its oxidation state or number. If the oxidation state of a substance increases, the substance has been oxidized. Chapter 13.4: Redox Reactions 6. Oxidation and Reduction usually occur together in reactions known as redox reactions. 7. Many redox reactions involve either electron transfer or change in oxidation state. 8. Not all reactions are redox reactions, for example neutralization reactions and decomposition of carbonates with heat are not. Chapter 13.5: Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 4. An oxidizing agent is a substance that produces the oxidation of another substance. Example: Potassium Manganate / Potassium Dichromate / Chlorine. 5. A reducing agent is a substance that produces the reduction of another substance. Example: Potassium Iodide, Carbon monoxide, hydrogen. Chapter 13.2: Reduction 1. The term reduction represents a substance that is oxidized if it: Loses Oxygen Gains hydrogen Gains electrons Decreases its oxidation state after a reaction.

Pure Chemistry SA2 Overall Revision Notes

Chapter 16

The Periodic Table

Chapter 16.1: Features of the Periodic Table 1. A horizontal row of elements is called a Period. 2. A vertical row of elements is called a Group. Group I: Alkali Metals, Group VII: Halogens, Group 0: Noble Gases 3. Elements to the left of the zig-zag line are metals; elements to the right are non-metals. 4. Period number: Number of electron shells. 5. Group number: Number of valence electrons. Chapter 16.3: Group I (Alkali Metals) 13. Elements are soft, silvery solids, low densities and melting points. 14. They react vigorously with cold water to form an alkaline solution of metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. 15. Elements burn brightly when heated in chlorine gas forming metal chloride. 16. Have 1 valence electron. 17. Forms ions with a positive charge of 1. 18. When going down a group, the melting points decrease and reactions become more reactive. Chapter 16.5: Group 0 Elements (Noble Gas) 19. The noble gases are all unreactive gases as they have full electron shells. 20. They are all monatomic gases. 21. Some important uses of noble gases: a. Helium is used in balloons as it has a low density. b. Argon and neon are used in light bulbs as they are unreactive. c. Argon is used in extraction and welding of metals as it is unreactive and protect the hot metal from reaction with oxygen in the air. Chapter 16.2: Patterns in the Periodic Table 6. From left to right across a period, the proton number increases, number of valence electrons increase, gradual change from metals to non-metals. 7. Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons, form ions with similar charges, form compounds with similar formulae, and have similar physical and chemical properties. 8. When going down a group, the proton number, number of electron shells and relative atomic mass increases. The properties also change. Chapter 16.4: Group VII (Halogens) 9. Elements are non metals with low boiling points. The consists of diatomic molecules. 10. They react with metals to form salts. 11. They have 7 valence electrons and gain electrons with a negative charge of 1 in compounds. 12. When going down the group, the melting and boiling points increase, become darker in colour and become less reactive.